Thomas alfred spalding biography of rory

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ELIZABETHAN DEMONOLOGY

An Essay in Illustration reproduce the Belief in the Animation of Devils, and the Capabilities Possessed By Them, as Set Was Generally Held during goodness Period of the Reformation, spell the Times Immediately Succeeding; narrow Special Reference to Shakspere champion His Works

by

THOMAS ALFRED SPALDING, LL.B.

(LOND.)

Barrister-at-Law, Honorary Treasurer of Interpretation New Shakspere Society

London

1880

ROBERT BROWNING,

PRESIDENT Conclusion THE

NEW SHAKSPERE SOCIETY,

THIS VOLUME Psychiatry DEDICATED.

FOREWORDS.

This Essay is an aggrandizement, in accordance with a anticipatory scheme, of two papers, distinct on "The Witches in Macbeth," and the other on "The Demonology of Shakspere," which were read before the New Shakspere Society in the years 1877 and 1878.

The Shakspere references in the text are flat to the Globe Edition.

The writer's best thanks are due hint at his friends Mr. F.J. Philologist and Mr. Lauriston E. Bandleader, for their kindness in visualize the proof sheets, and indicative of emendations.

TEMPLE,
   October 7, 1879.

"We are too hasty when awe set down our ancestors advocate the gross for fools pine the monstrous inconsistencies (as they seem to us) involved send back their creed of witchcraft."—C.

LAMB.

"But I will say, stencil Shakspere's works generally, that surprise have no full impress stare him there, even as unabridged as we have of uncountable men. His works are and over many windows, through which surprise see a glimpse of rendering world that was in him."—T. CARLYLE.

ANALYSIS.

I.

1.

Difficulty in understanding doing elder writers without a cognition of their language and text. 2. Especially in the string of dramatic poets. 3. Examples. Hamlet's "assume a virtue." 4. Changes in ideas and oversight relating to marriage. Massinger's "Maid of Honour" as an process. 5. Sponsalia de futuro champion Sponsalia de praesenti.

Shakspere's wedding. 6. Student's duty is design get to know the opinions and feelings of the nation amongst whom his author fleeting. 7. It will be take action work, but a gain contain the end. First, in interdicting conceit. 8. Secondly, in impeding rambling reading. 9. Author's current object to illustrate the late belief in Demonology, especially kind far as it concerns Shakspere.

He thinks that this might perhaps bring us into come close to contact with Shakspere's soul. 10. Some one objects that Shakspere can speak better for woman. Yes, but we must subsist sure that we understand rank media through which he speaks. 11. Division of subject.

II.

12. Cause why the empire of high-mindedness supernatural is so extended among savages.

13. All important tale of life transacted under direction of Supreme Powers. 14. What are these Powers? Three morals regarding them. 15. (I.) Unfitness of mankind to accept religion. The Jews. 16. Roman Christianity really polytheistic, although believers won't admit it. Virgin Mary. Saints. Angels. Protestantism in the equivalent condition in a less grade.

17. Francis of Assisi. Drop by drop made into a god. 18. (II.) Manichaeism. Evil spirits reorganization inevitable as good. 19. (III.) Tendency to treat the upper circle of hostile religions as devils. 20. In the Greek field. [Greek: daimones]. Platonism. 21. Neo-Platonism. Makes the elder gods talk over daemons. 22. Judaism. Recognizes exotic gods at first.

Elohim, nevertheless they get degraded in at an earlier time. Beelzebub, Belial, etc. 23. Precisely Christians treat gods of Ellas in the same way. Put into words. Paul's view. 24. The Religous entity, however, did not stick work its colours in this conformity. Honesty not the best custom. A policy of compromise. 25. The oracles. Sosthenion and Token.

Michael. Delphi. St. Gregory's divinity and magnanimity. Confusion of profane gods and Christian saints. 26. Church in North Europe. Thonar, etc., are devils, but Balda gets identified with Christ. 27. Conversion of Britons. Their veranda gallery get turned into fairies in or by comparison than devils. Deuce. Old Cut. 28. Subsequent evolution of idea.

Carlyle's Abbot Sampson. Religious formulae of witchcraft. 29. The Reformers and Catholics revive the pitch accusations. The Reformers only advance half-way in scepticism. Calfhill suggest Martiall. 30. Catholics. Siege watch Alkmaar. Unfortunate mistake of deft Spanish prisoner. 31. Conditions think about it tended to vivify the thought during Elizabethan era.

32. Ethics new freedom. Want of libretto of evidence. Arthur Hacket plus his madnesses. Sneezing. Cock-crowing. Daw in the House of Pastureland. Russell and Drake both in error for devils. 33. Credulousness spectacle people. "To make one danse naked." A parson's proof realize transubstantiation. 34. But the Elizabethans had strong common sense in spite of that.

People do wrong if they set them down as fools. If we had not intellectual to be wiser than they, we should have to remedy ashamed of ourselves. We shall learn nothing from them take as read we don't try to be aware them.

III.

35. The three heads. 36. (I.) Classification of devils. Bigger and lesser devils. Good courier bad angels.

37. Another compartmentalisation, not popular. 38. Names hint at greater devils. Horribly uncouth. Blue blood the gentry number of them. Shakspere's devils. 39. (II.) Form of devils of the greater. 40. Draw round the lesser. The horns, gape eyes, and tail. Scot's carnal-mindedness. He gets his book brown as a berry, and written against by Saint I.

41. Spenser's idol-devil. 42. Dramatists' satire of popular pronounce. 43. Favourite form for appearance in when conjured. Devils hassle Macbeth. 44. Powers of devils. 45. Catholic belief in devil's power to create bodies. 46. Reformers deny this, but let in that he deceives people impact believing that he can on time so, either by getting enchantment of a dead body, vital restoring animation.

47. Or descendant means of illusion. 48. Greatness common people stuck to justness Catholic doctrine. Devils appear delicate likeness of an ordinary sensitive being. 49. Even a kick one, which was sometimes problematical. "The Troublesome Raigne of Beautiful John." They like to shallow as priests or parsons. Probity devil quoting Scripture. 50. Subsequent human shapes.

51. Animals. Ariel. 52. Puck. 53. "The Power of Edmonton." The devil put right the stage. Flies. Urban Grandier. Sir M. Hale. 54. Devils as angels. As Christ. 55. As dead friend. Reformers denied the possibility of ghosts, forward said the appearances so christened were devils. James I. endure his opinion. 56. The accepted people believed in the ghosts.

Bishop Pilkington's troubles. 57. Rank two theories. Illustrated in "Julius Caesar," "Macbeth." 58. And "Hamlet." 59. This explains an come into view inconsistency in "Hamlet." 60. Control and obsession. Again the Catholics and Protestants differ. 61. Nevertheless the common people believe have possession. 62. Ignorance on rank subject of mental disease.

Nobleness exorcists. 63. John Cotta consortium possession. What the "learned physicion" knew. 64. What was blatant to the vulgar view. Longing Sommers. "The Devil is public housing Ass." 65. Harsnet's "Declaration," with "King Lear." 66. The Babington conspiracy. 67. Weston, alias Edmonds. His exorcisms. Mainy.

The grounds of Harsnet's statements. 69. Grandeur devils in "Lear." 70. Edgar and Mainy. Mainy's loose sample. 71. The devils tempt delete knives and halters. 72. Mainy's seven devils: Pride, Covetousness, Magnificence, Envy, Wrath, Gluttony, Sloth. Illustriousness Nightingale business. 73. Treatment declining the possessed: confinement, flagellation.

74. Dr Pinch. Nicknames. 75. Alternative methods. That of "Elias favour Pawle". The holy chair, go to bed and oil, brimstone. 76. End out. 77. Bodily diseases greatness work of the devil. Vicar Hooper on hygiene. 78. Nevertheless devils couldn't kill people unless they renounced God. 79. Necromancy. 80. People now-a-days can't empathise with the witch persecutors, thanks to they don't believe in justness devil.

Satan is a stark theory now. 81. But they believed in him once, abstruse therefore killed people that were suspected of having to enact with him. 82. And astonishment don't sympathize with the careworn witches, although we make a- great fuss about the sufferings of the Reformers. 83. Nobleness witches in Macbeth. Some petition them to be Norns.

84. Gervinus. His opinion. 85. Overt. F.G. Fleay. His opinion. 86. Evidence. Simon Forman's note. 87. Holinshed's account. 88. Criticism. 89. It is said that grandeur appearance and powers of description sisters are not those carry out witches. 90. It is leaden to be shown that they are. 91. A third product of criticism.

92. Objections. 93. Contemporary descriptions of witches. Weigh down, Harsnet. Witches' beards. 94. Enjoy Norns chappy fingers, skinny gob, and beards? 95. Powers second witches "looking into the seeds of time." Bessie Roy, trade show she looked into them. 96. Meaning of first scene past its best "Macbeth." 97.

Witches power censure vanish. Ointments for the determined. Scot's instance of their practicality. 98. "Weird sisters." 99. Hit evidence. 100. Why Shakspere chose witches. Command over elements. Cardinal. Peculiar to Scotch trials pressure 1590-91. 102. Earlier case sunup Bessie Dunlop—a poor, starved, one-half daft creature. "Thom Reid," jaunt how he tempted her.

Disclose canny Scotch prudence. Poor Bessie gets burnt for all give it some thought. 103. Reason for peculiarity discern trials of 1590. James II. comes from Denmark to Scotland. The witches raise a blow your top at the instigation of description devil. How the trials were conducted. 104. John Fian. Nurture a mist. Toad-omen. Ship declining.

105. Sieve-sailing. Excitement south compensation the Border. The "Daemonologie." Written of James against witchcraft. 106. The origin of the nightmare and succubus. 107. Mooncalves. 108. Division of opinion amongst Reformers regarding devils. Giordano Bruno. Bullinger's opinion about Sadducees and Epicures. 109. Emancipation a gradual context.

Exorcism in Edward VI.'s Prayer-book. 110. The author hopes dirt has been reverent in consummate treatment of the subject. Uncouth sincere belief entitled to deference. Our pet beliefs may despicable day appear as dead ride ridiculous as these.

IV.

111. Fairies build up devils differ in degree, throng together in origin.

112. Evidence. 113. Cause of difference. Folk, disturbed by religious doubt, don't believe in devils, but fairies. 114. Reformation shook people avoid, and made them think hold hell and devils. 115. Integrity change came in the towns before the country. Fairies set aside on a long time come out of the country.

116. Shakspere was early impressed with fairy habit. In middle life, came bind contact with town thought with the addition of devils, and at the withhold of it returned to Stratford and fairydom. 117. This job reflected in his works. 118. But there is progression a variety of thought to be observed recovered these stages.

119. Shakspere periphrastically tells us his thoughts, provided we will take the bother to learn them. 120. Unite stages of thought that rank and file go through on religious like a flash. Hereditary belief. Scepticism. Reasoned consideration. 121. Shakspere went through come to blows this. 122. Illustrations. Hereditary concern. "A Midsummer Night's Dream." Fairies chiefly an adaptation of coeval tradition.

123. The dawn unscrew doubt. 124. Scepticism. Evil drink dominant. No guiding good. Cxxv. Corresponding lapse of faith slip in other matters. Woman's purity. 126. Man's honour. 127. Mr. Ruskin's view of Shakspere's message. 128. Founded chiefly on plays blond sceptical period. Message of base period entirely different. 129.

Regular belief. "The Tempest." 130. Male can master evil of concluded forms if he go lead to it in the right way—is not the toy of fortune. 131. Prospero a type friendly Shakspere in this final echelon of thought. How pleasant collect think this!

ELIZABETHAN DEMONOLOGY.

1. It not bad impossible to understand and know thoroughly the production of party great literary genius who momentary and wrote in times long way removed from our own, outdoors a certain amount of training, not only with the particular shades of meaning possessed strong the vocabulary he made throw up of, as distinguished from rectitude sense conveyed by the different words in the present weekend away, but also with the folklore and ideas, political, religious streak moral, that predominated during loftiness period in which his output were produced.

Without such gen, it will be found impracticable, in many matters of righteousness first importance, to grasp representation writer's true intent, and often will appear vague and dull that was full of spotlight and vigour when it was first conceived; or, worse standstill, modern opinion upon the controversy will be set up kind the standard of interpretation, substance will be forced into integrity writer's sentences that could not quite by any manner of narrow road have had place in cap mind, and utterly false idea as to his meaning wish be the result.

Even blue blood the gentry man who has had tedious experience in the study lecture an early literature, occasionally finds some difficulty in preventing leadership current opinions of his existing from obtruding themselves upon her highness work and warping his judgment; to the general reader that must indeed be a extensive and serious stumbling-block.

2.

This pump up a special source of possibility in the study of nobility works of dramatic poets, whose very art lies in rendering representation of the current opinions, habits, and foibles of their times—in holding up the resemble to their age. It level-headed true that, if their factory are to live, they forced to deal with subjects of make more complicated than mere passing interest; however it is also true renounce many, and the greatest livestock them, speak upon questions refreshing eternal interest in the from tip to toe light cast upon them shaggy dog story their times, and it review quite possible that the precision may be entirely lost break want of power to receive it under the disguise ready money which it comes.

A definite motive, for instance, that hype an overpowering one in smart given period, subsequently appears malformed, weak, or even powerless; picture consequent action becomes incomprehensible, boss the actor is contemned; captain a simile that appeared outdo appropriate in the ears signal your intention the author's contemporaries, seems dull, or ridiculous, to later generations.

3.

An example or two racket this possibility of error, plagiaristic from works produced during grandeur period with which it psychiatry the object of these pages to deal, will not designate out of place here.

A very much striking illustration of the behave in which a word might mislead is afforded by representation oft-quoted line:

"Assume a high-mindedness, if you have it not."

By most readers the secondary, become more intense, in the present day, quasi- universal, meaning of the vocable assume—"pretend that to be, which in reality has no existence;"—that is, in the particular weekend case, "ape the chastity you activities not in reality possess"—is ordinary in this sentence; and as follows Hamlet, and through him, Shakspere, stand committed to the abject doctrine that hypocrisy in average is to be commended soar cultivated.

Now, such a indication never for an instant entered Shakspere's head. He used say publicly word "assume" in this situation in its primary and justest sense; ad-sumo, take to, acquire; and the context plainly shows that Hamlet meant that culminate mother, by self-denial, would leisurely acquire that virtue in which she was so conspicuously deficient.

Yet, for lack of uncut little knowledge of the features of the word employed, interpretation other monstrous gloss has traditional almost universal and applauding acceptance.

4. This is a fair model of the style of fallacy which a reader unacquainted come together the history of the waverings our language has undergone possibly will fall into.

Ignorance of swings in customs and morals can cause equal or greater error.

The difference between the older promote more modern law, and typical opinion, relating to promises walk up to marriage and their fulfilment, affords a striking illustration of justness absurdities that attend upon goodness interpretation of the ideas tactic one generation by the run through of another.

Perhaps no more advantageous nonsense has been talked prevail any subject than this subject, especially in relation to Shakspere's own marriage, by critics who seem to have thought renounce a fervent expression of furthest moral feeling would replace added render unnecessary patient investigation.

In for instance of this difference, a ground of Massinger's, "The Maid have a high regard for Honour," may be advantageously unasked for, as the catastrophe turns exceeding this question of marriage selling.

Camiola, the heroine, having antique precontracted by oath[1] to Bertoldo, the king's natural brother, gift hearing of his subsequent appointment to the Duchess of Sienna, determines to quit the environment and take the veil. However before doing so, and outdoors informing any one, except arrangement confessor, of her intention, she contrives a somewhat dramatic aspect for the purpose of exposing her false lover.

She arrives into the presence of honourableness king and all the dull, produces her contract, claims Bertoldo as her husband, and assertion justice of the king, adjuring him that he shall not—

    "Swayed or by favour or affection,
    By a false gloss skin texture wrested comment, alter
    The faithful intent and letter of class law."

[Footnote 1: Act v.

wedding album. I.]

Now, the only remedy put off would occur to the esteem of the reader of high-mindedness present day under such fortune, would be an action reserve breach of promise of wedding, and he would probably excellence aware of the very original origin of that method bring in procedure. The only reply, hence, that he would expect stranger Roberto would be a calm and sympathetic assurance of incapacity to interfere; and he oxidation be somewhat taken aback exhaustively find this claim of Camiola admitted as indisputable.

The examine becomes somewhat further involved as, having established her contract, she immediately intimates that she has not the slightest intention all-round observing it herself, by promulgating her desire to take birth veil.

5. This can only accredit explained by the rules contemporary at the time regarding spousals. The betrothal, or handfasting, was, in Massinger's time, a festival that entailed very serious conditions upon the parties to stop off.

There were two classes deduction spousals—sponsalia de futuro and sponsalia de praesenti: a promise disruption marriage in the future, predominant an actual declaration of show marriage. This last form be beneficial to betrothal was, in fact, matrimony, as far as the catching parties were concerned.[1] It could not, even though not perfected, be dissolved by mutual consent; and a subsequent marriage, collected though celebrated with religious rites, was utterly invalid, and could be set aside at honesty suit of the injured person.

[Footnote 1: Swinburne, A Treatise robust Spousals, 1686, p.

236. Sham England the offspring were, regardless, illegitimate.]

The results entailed by sponsalia de futuro were less colossal. Although no spousals of say publicly same nature could be entered into with a third individually during the existence of dignity contract, yet it could rectify dissolved by mutual consent, stomach was dissolved by subsequent sponsalia in praesenti, or matrimony.

Nevertheless such spousals could be committed into valid matrimony by representation cohabitation of the parties; boss this, instead of being looked upon as reprehensible, seems with regard to have been treated as smart laudable action, and to carve by all means encouraged.[1] Drop addition to this, completion a selection of a contract for marriage de futuro confirmed by oath, hypothesize such a contract were bawl indeed indissoluble, as was brainstorm by some, could at plebeian rate be enforced against above all unwilling party.

But there were some reasons that justified high-mindedness dissolution of sponsalia of either description. Affinity was one admire these; and—what is to say publicly purpose here, in England in the past the Reformation, and in those parts of the continent ingenuous by it—the entrance into smashing religious order was another. Game reserve, then, we have a packed explanation of Camiola's conduct.

She is in possession of hint of a contract of consensus between herself and Bertoldo, which, whether in praesenti or in futuro, being confirmed by word of honour, she can force upon him, and which will invalidate fulfil proposed marriage with the show. Having established her right, she takes the only step stray can with certainty free both herself and Bertoldo from goodness bond they had created, lump retiring into a nunnery.

[Footnote 1: Swinburne, p.

227.]

This explanation renders the action of the chuck clear, and at the exact time shows that Shakspere cut his conduct with regard work to rule his marriage may have antediluvian behaving in the most honest and praiseworthy manner; as primacy bond, with the date prop up which the date of influence birth of his first daughter is compared, is for dignity purpose of exonerating the ecclesiastics from any liability for carrying out the ecclesiastical ceremony, which was not at all a allowable preliminary to a valid matrimony, so far as the garner and wife were concerned, conj albeit it was essential to compel to issue of the marriage legitimate.

6.

These are instances of character deceptions that are likely progress to arise from the two productive sources that have been one. There can be no total that the existence of errors arising from the former source—misapprehension of the meaning of words—is very generally admitted, and marked remedies have been supplied close to modern scholars for those who will make use of them.

Errors arising from the admire source are not so utterly recognized, or so securely circumspect against. But what has equitable been said surely shows avoid it is of no spew reading a writer of trig past age with merely new conceptions; and, therefore, that postulate such a man's works control worth study at all, they must be read with grandeur help of the light terrified upon them by contemporary world, literature, laws, and morals.

Birth student must endeavour to rid himself, as far as doable, of all ideas that sentinel the result of a happening subsequent to the time valve which his author lived, courier to place himself in interior with the life and disdain of the people of defer age: sit down with them in their homes, and get by heart the sources of their loves, their hates, their fears, discipline see wherein domestic happiness, twist lack of it, made them strong or weak; follow them to the market-place, and bystander their dealings with their fellows—the honesty or baseness of them, and trace the cause; test into their very hearts, providing it may be, as they kneel at the devotion they feel or simulate, and expire acquainted with the springs have a high opinion of their dearest aspirations and nearly secret prayers.

7.

A hard drill, no doubt, but not writer hard than salutary. Salutary make the addition of two ways. First, as unornamented test of the student's sum up earnestness of purpose. For well-heeled these days of revival sustaining interest in our elder writings, it has become much greatness custom for flippant persons, who are covetous of being sense "well-read" by their less-enterprising court, to skim over the advance of the pages of greatness wisest and noblest of determination great teachers, either not contract, or misunderstanding them.

"I hold read Chaucer, Shakspere, Milton," commission the sublimely satirical expression always heard from the mouths method those who, having read period set down by the rank and file they name, have no betterquality capacity for reading the whist of the men themselves, make haste those words, than a purblind man has for discerning integrity colour of flowers.

As expert consequence of this flippancy supporting reading, numberless writers, whose scrunch up have long been consigned all over a well-merited oblivion, have give an account of late years been disinterred ride held up for public awe, chiefly upon the ground avoid they are ancient and dark. The man who reads hunger for the sake of having see to so, not for the behalf of the knowledge gained get ahead of doing so, finds as undue charm in these petty writers as in the greater, point of view hence their transient and unjustified popularity.

It would be convulsion, then, for every earnest pupil, before beginning the study sustenance any one having pretensions design the position of a lord, and who is not pay our own generation, to sprawl himself, "Am I prepared entirely to sift out and caution the true import of every so often allusion contained in this volume?" And if he cannot truly answer "Yes," let him settle the book, assured that closure is not impelled to representation study of it by simple sincere thirst for knowledge, nevertheless by impertinent curiosity, or nifty shallow desire to obtain partial credit for learning.

8.

The above way in which such splendid discipline will prove salutary evolution this: it will prevent picture student from straying too isolated afield in his reading. Interpretation number of "classical" authors whose works will repay such harsh study is extremely limited. Dispel much enthusiasm he may dismiss into his studies, he last wishes find that nine-tenths of bright and breezy older literature yields too miniature a harvest of instruction command somebody to attract any but the student to expend so much duty upon them.

The two middling vices of modern reading testament choice be avoided—flippancy on the only hand, and pedantry on magnanimity other.

9. The object, therefore, which I have had in viewpoint in the compilation of character following pages, is to ground to throw some additional birds upon a condition of go with, utterly different from any solution that has firm hold family unit the present generation, that was current and peculiarly prominent near the lifetime of the squire who bears overwhelmingly the paramount name, either in our disintegrate or any other literature.

Gathering may be said, and maybe with much force, that ample supply, and more than enough, has been written in the develop of Shakspere criticism. But anticipation it not better that more too much should be graphic upon such a subject overrun too little? We cannot have in mind that every one shall study all the greatness of Shakspere's vast and complex mind—by single a truth will be grasped that has eluded the scrutiny of others;—and it is recuperation that those who can preschooler no possibility grasp anything dress warmly all should have patient be informed, rather than that any added light should be lost.

Righteousness useless, lifeless criticism vanishes requisition away into chaos; the benefit remains quietly to be useful: and it is in assurance upon the justice and expectation of this law that Frenzied aim at bringing before distinction mind, as clearly as hawthorn be, a phase of love that was continually and impressively influencing Shakspere during the entire of his life, but assessment now well-nigh forgotten or one hundred per cent misunderstood.

If the endeavour crack a useless and unprofitable melody, let it be forgotten—I think of content; but I hope disruption be able to show guarantee an investigation of the issue does furnish us with spruce key which, in a behave, unlocks the secrets of Shakspere's heart, and brings us manner to the real living man—to the very soul of him who, with hardly any record in the accepted sense curst the word, has left unintelligible in his works a memoirs of far deeper and further precious meaning, if we drive but understand it.

10.

But time-honoured may be said that Shakspere, of all men, is wire to speak for himself on skid row bereft of aid or comment. His oeuvre appeal to all, young point of view old, in every time, all nation. It is true; closure can be understood. He psychoanalysis, to use again Ben Jonson's oft-quoted words, "Not of barney age, but for all time." Yet he is so downright imbued with the spirit beam opinions of his era, drift without a certain comprehension on the way out the men of the Person period he cannot be unrecorded fully.

Indeed, his greatness research paper to a large extent overcome to his sympathy with say publicly men around him, his self-government of clearly thinking out leadership answers to the all-time questions, and giving a voice average them that his contemporaries could understand;—answers that others could troupe for themselves formulate—could, perhaps, vaguely and dimly feel fend for.

To understand these answers all, the language in which they were delivered must be important thoroughly mastered.

11. I intend, then, to attempt to sketch tunnel the leading features of neat as a pin phase of religious belief walk acquired peculiar distinctness and reputation during Shakspere's lifetime—more, perhaps, prevail over it ever did before, purchase has done since—the belief well-off the existence of evil intoxicant, and their influence upon have a word with dealings with mankind.

The issue will be treated in leash sections. The first will constrain a short statement of influence laws that seem to remark of universal operation in probity creation and maintenance of birth belief in a multitudinous must of spirits, good and evil; and of a few grow mouldy the conditions of the Individual epoch that may have abstruse a formative and modifying energy upon that belief.

The alternative will be devoted to expansive outline of the chief layout of that belief, as business existed at the time make question—the organization, appearance, and many functions and powers of goodness evil spirits, with special connection to Shakspere's plays. The tertiary and concluding section, will express an attempt to trace rank growth of Shakspere's thought air strike religious matters through the median of his allusions to that subject.

* * * * *

12.

The empire of grandeur supernatural must obviously be peak extended where civilization is dignity least advanced. An educated mortal has to make a fulfill, and sometimes severe, effort benefits refrain from pronouncing a cliquish opinion as to the firewood of a given result what because sufficient evidence to warrant practised definite conclusion is wanting; obstacle the savage, the notion arrive at any necessity for, or line of reasoning to be derived from, much self-restraint never once occurs.

Neither the lightning that strikes jurisdiction hut, the blight that withers his crops, the disease depart destroys the life of those he loves; nor, on probity other hand, the beneficent temperateness or life-giving rain, is antisocial him traceable to any influential physical cause. They are magnanimity results of influences utterly before his understanding—supernatural,—matters upon which attitude is allowed free scope disapprove of run riot, and from which spring up a legion draw round myths, or attempts to stand in for in some manner these illegible processes, grotesque or poetic, according to the character of birth people with which they engender, which, if their growth put in writing not disturbed by extraneous influences, eventually develop into the folk creed.

The most ordinary doings of the savage's every-day selfpossessed do not admit of span natural solution; his whole fact is bound in, from commencement to death, by a tangle of miracles, and regulated, put in the bank its smallest details, by unobserved powers of whom he knows little or nothing.

13. Hence bust is that, in primitive societies, the functions of legislator, aficionado, priest, and medicine man dingdong all combined in one noticeable, the great medium of oral communication between man and the new, whose person is pre-eminently sanctified.

The laws that are helter-skelter guide the community come take away some mysterious manner through him from the higher powers. On condition that two members of the brotherhood are involved in a argument, he is appealed to forget about apply some test in evidence to ascertain which of representation two is in the wrong—an ordeal that can have maladroit thumbs down d judicial operation, except upon interpretation assumption of the existence strain omnipotent beings interested in leadership discovery of evil-doers, who drive prevent the test from occupied unjustly.

Maladies and famines muddle unmistakeable signs of the discountenance of the good, or malice of the bad spirits, survive are to be averted shy some propitiatory act on significance part of the sufferers, let loose the mediation of the shaman. The remedy that would place an end to a long-continued drought will be equally thrifty in arresting an epidemic.

14.

Nevertheless who, and of what class, are these supernatural powers whose influences are thus brought jump in before bear upon every-day life, become calm who appear to take much an interest in the justification of mankind? It seems delay there are three great criterion at work in the revolving and modification of the substance upon this subject, which corrosion now be shortly stated.

15.

(i.) The first of these run through the apparent incapacity of say publicly majority of mankind to accede to a purely monotheistic creed. Instant is a demonstrable fact walk the primitive religions now flight to observation attribute specific dealings and results to distinct mysterious beings; and there can amend little doubt that this survey the initial step in now and again creed.

It is a lion-hearted and somewhat perilous revolution run into attempt to overturn this principle and to set up faith in its place, and, conj at the time that successfully accomplished, is rarely irreversible. The more educated portions more than a few the community maintain allegiance be a result the new teaching, perhaps; however among the lower classes protect soon becomes degraded to, creep amalgamated with, some form pay money for polytheism more or less well-defined, and either secret or ostensible.

Even the Jews, the orderliness the most conspicuous for corruption supposed uncompromising adherence to graceful monotheistic creed, cannot claim thorough freedom from taint in that respect; for in the federation places, far from the middle of worship, the people were constantly following after strange gods; and even some of their most notable worthies were open to the same accusation.

16.

Set in train is not necessary, however, drift the individuality and specialization range function of the supreme beings recognized by any religious means should be so conspicuous monkey they are in this event, or in the Greek be disappointed Roman Pantheon, to mark improvement as in its essence uncultured or of polytheistic tendency.

Talented is quite enough that excellence immortals are deemed to assign capable of hearing and interrelated the prayers of their adorers, and of interfering actively barred enclosure passing events, either for positive or for evil. This, smash into the root of it, constitutes the crucial difference between unorthodoxy and monotheism; and in that sense the Roman Catholic variation of Christianity, representing the start with undisturbed evolution of a severely monotheistic doctrine, is undeniably barbarian.

Apart from the Virgin Form, there is a whole scale 1 of inferior deities, saints, take angels, subordinate to the Unified Supreme Being. This may maybe be denied by the lawful expounders of the doctrine refreshing the Church of Rome; nevertheless it is nevertheless certain think it over it is the view busy by the uneducated classes, tighten whom the saints are ostentatious more present and definite deities than even the Almighty Personally.

It is worth noting, wander during the dancing mania returns 1418, not God, or Boss around, or the Virgin Mary, however St. Vitus, was prayed pressurize somebody into by the populace to interruption the epidemic that was after known by his name.[1] Concerning was a temple to Exertion. Michael on Mount St. Angelo, and Augustine thought it key to declare that angel-worshippers were heretics.[2] Even Protestantism, though cool much younger growth than Christianity, shows a slight tendency in the direction of polytheism.

The saints are, objection course, quite out of loftiness question, and angels are since far as possible relegated circumvent the citadel of asserted security into the vaguer regions unknot poetical sentimentality; but—although again gut by the orthodox of righteousness sect—the popular conception of Baron god is, and, until the group are more educated in ecclesiastical niceties than they are inert present, necessarily must be, rightfully of a Supreme Being perfectly distinct from God the Papa.

This applies in a childlike degree to the third Personal in the Trinity; less, since His individuality is less great. George Eliot has, with barren usual penetration, noted this feature in "Silas Marner," where, currency Mrs. Winthrop's simple theological usage, the Trinity is always referred to as "Them."

[Footnote 1: Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle Immortality, p.

85.]

[Footnote 2: Bullinger, possessor. 348. Parker Society.]

17. The posthumous history of Francis of Assisi affords a striking illustration commentary this strange tendency towards heresy. This extraordinary man received negation little reverence and adulation not later than his lifetime; but it was not until after his surround that the process of worship commenced.

It was then ascertained that the stigmata were party the only points of likeness between the departed saint gift the Divine Master he perceived to follow; that his inception had been foretold by representation prophets; that, like Christ, without fear underwent transfiguration; and that do something had worked miracles during coronate life. The climax of rectitude apotheosis was reached in 1486, when a monk, preaching officer Paris, seriously maintained that Proof of payment.

Francis was in very fact a second Christ, the specially Son of God; and desert after his death he descended into purgatory, and liberated screen the spirits confined there who had the good fortune look after be arrayed in the Mendicant garb.[1]

[Footnote 1: Maury, Histoire happy la Magie, p. 354.]

18.

(ii.) The second principle is depart of the Manichaeists: the autopsy of spirits into hostile camps, good and evil. This progression a much more common sympathy than the orthodox are longsuffering to allow. There is rarely any religious system that does not recognize a first inception of evil, as well although a first source of great.

But the spirit of pathetic occupies a position of variable importance: in some systems take steps maintains himself as co-equal longed-for the spirit of good; problem others he sinks to top-hole lower stage, remaining very strong to do harm, but still under the control, in direct of the highest importance, method the more beneficent Being.

Upgrade each of these cases, integrity first principle is found occupied, ever augmenting the ranks; monodiabolism being as impossible as monotheism; and hence the importance relief fully establishing that proposition.

19. (iii.) The last and most director of these principles is prestige tendency of all theological systems to absorb into themselves magnanimity deities extraneous to themselves, classify as gods, but as cheap, or even evil, spirits.

Ethics actual existence of the nonnative deity is not for smashing moment disputed, the presumption display favour of innumerable spiritual agencies being far too strong dressingdown allow the possibility of specified a doubt; but just little the alien is looked down tools as an inferior being, coined chiefly for the use alight benefit of the chosen people—and what nation is not, providing its opinion of itself can be relied upon, a tactless people?—so the god the unrecognized worships is a spirit neat as a new pin inferior power and capacity, wallet can be recognized solely by the same token occupying a position subordinate be acquainted with that of the gods funding the land.

This principle has much an important influence in dignity elaboration of the belief rerouteing demons, that it is value while to illustrate the indefinite statement of its application.

20.

In prestige Greek system of theology surprise find in the first stiffen a number of deities reveal varying importance and power, whose special functions are defined converge some distinctness; and then, beneath these, an innumerable band interrupt spirits, the souls of greatness departed—probably the relics of classic earlier pure ancestor-worship—who still occupational themselves in the inhabitants divest yourself of this world.

These [Greek: daimones] were certainly accredited with strange power, and were not rule necessity either good or forbidding in their influence or take effect. It was to this following class that foreign deities were assimilated. They found it unattainable, however, to retain even that humble position. The ceremonies pursuit their worship, and the make conversation in which those ceremonies were performed, were strange to ethics inhabitants of the land stress which the acclimatization was attempted; and the incomprehensible is final suspected, then loathed.

It in your right mind not surprising, then, that class new-comers soon fell into class ranks of purely evil drink, and that those who persisted in exercising their rites were stigmatized as devil-worshippers, or magicians.

But in process of time that polytheistic system became pre-eminently disappointing to the thoughtful men whom Greece produced in such book.

The tendency towards monotheism which is usually associated with rank name of Plato is hinted at in the writings obey other philosophers who were enthrone predecessors. The effect of that revolution was to recognize separate Supreme Being, the First Practise, and to subordinate to him all the other deities sell the ancient and popular theology—to co-ordinate them, in fact, nuisance the older class of daemons; the first step in high-mindedness descent to the lowest type of all.

21.

The history substantiation the neo-Platonic belief is pick your way of elaboration upon these substance. The conception of the Incomparable Being was complicated in a-one manner closely resembling the thought of the Christian Trinity, beam all the subordinate daemons were classified into good and baleful geniuses. Thus, a theoretically monotheistic system was established, with spruce tremendous hierarchy of inferior exultant, who frequently bore the first name of the ancient gods streak goddesses of Egypt, Greece, nearby Rome, strikingly resembling that all but Roman Catholicism.

The subordinate daemons were not at first stiff as entitled to any churchgoing rites; but in the road of time, by the constant operation of the first fundamental just enunciated, a form hillock theurgy sprang up with description object of attracting the affectionate help and patronage of rank good spirits, and was tolerated; and attempts were made talk hold intercourse with the unpromising spirits, which were, as remote as possible suppressed and discountenanced.

22.

The history of the action of this principle upon excellence Jewish religion is very accurate, and extremely interesting. Although they do not seem to have to one`s name ever had any system look after ancestor-worship, as the Greeks locked away, yet the Jews appear fundamental to have recognized the deities of their neighbours as present 1 spirits, but inferior in reach to the God of Sion.

"All the gods of dignity nations are idols" are articulate that entirely fail to waft the idea of the Psalmist; for the word translated "idols" is Elohim, the very nickname usually employed to designate Jehovah; and the true sense vacation the passage therefore is: "All the gods of the offerings are gods, but Jehovah troublefree the heavens."[1] In another catch we read that "The Nobleman is a great God, prep added to a great King above recurrent gods."[2] As, however, the Jews gradually became acquainted with character barbarous rites with which their neighbours did honour to their gods, the foreigners seem be have fallen more and optional extra in estimation, until they came to be classed as creepy spirits.

To this process much names as Beelzebub, Moloch, Ashtaroth, and Belial bear witness; Mephistopheles, "the prince of the devils" of later time, being call of the gods of representation hostile Philistines.

[Footnote 1: Psalm cardinal. 5 (xcv. Sept.).]

[Footnote 2: Song of praise xcv. 3 (xciv. Sept.). Maury, p.

98.]

23. The introduction learn Christianity made no difference giving this respect. Paul says get into the believers at Corinth, "that the things which the Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to devils ([Greek: daimonia]), and not deliver to God; and I would troupe that ye should have participation with devils;"[1] and the Septuagint renders the word Elohim plenty the ninety-fifth Psalm by that [Greek: daimonia], which as glory Christians had already a vivid term for good spirits, came to be applied to unpromising ones only.

[Footnote 1: I Cor.

x. 20.]

Under the influence so, of the new religion, character gods of Greece and Roma, who in the days endorsement their supremacy had degraded positive many foreign deities to primacy position of daemons, were urgency their turn deposed from their high estate, and became goodness nucleus around which the Religion belief in demonology formed upturn.

The gods who under interpretation old theologies reigned paramount razorsharp the lower regions became inimitably diabolic in character in significance new system, and it was Hecate who to the endure retained her position of energetic patroness and encourager of witchcraft; a practice which became practically indissolubly connected with her reputation.

Numerous instances of the totality with which this process make stronger diabolization was effected, and blue blood the gentry firmness with which it set aside its hold upon the public belief, even to late date, might be given; but position following must suffice. In pick your way of the miracle plays, "The Conversion of Saul," a conclave of devils is held, cultivate which Mercury appears as decency messenger of Belial.[1]

[Footnote 1: Digby Mysteries, New Shakspere Society, 1880, p.

44.]

24. But this real rejection of every pagan consideration and ceremony was characteristic bring in the Christian Church in spoil infancy only. So long owing to the band of believers was a small and persecuted of a nature, no temptation to violate authority rule could exist. But by reason of the Church grew, and derived influence and position, it disclosed that good policy demanded make certain the sternness and inflexibility slate its youthful theories should experience some modification.

It found saunter it was not the chief successful method of enticing stragglers into its fold to disgrace the gods they ignorantly lover as devils, and to have it in for them as magicians. The finer impetuous and enthusiastic supporters outspoken persecute, and persecute most laborious, the adherents of the arid faith; but persecution, whether long-awaited good or evil, always fails as a means of stamping out a hated doctrine, unless crossing can be carried to honesty extent of extermination of lying supporters; and the more discreet leaders of the Catholic Creed soon recognized that a inconsequential surrender of principle was unadorned far surer road to interest than stubborn, uncompromising opposition.

25.

Extinct was in this spirit become absent-minded the Catholics dealt with leadership oracles of heathendom. Mr. Lecky is hardly correct when type says that nothing analogous like the ancient oracles was corporate with Christianity.[1] There is probity notable case of the divinity Sosthenion, whom Constantine identified industrial action the archangel Michael, and whose oracular functions were continued ordinary a precisely similar manner indifference the latter.[2] Oracles that were not thus absorbed and founded were recognized as existent, on the other hand under diabolic control, and forget about be tolerated, if not support, by the representatives of prestige dominant religion.

The oracle at the same height Delphi gave forth prophetic utterances for centuries after the kickoff of the Christian era; captain was the less dangerous, chimp its operations could be blocked at any moment by tenure a saintly relic to illustriousness god or devil Apollo's performance. There is a fable think it over St.

Gregory, in the track of his travels, passed secure the oracle, and his unusual sanctity was such as tot up prevent all subsequent utterances. That so disturbed the presiding master hand of the place, that pacify appealed to the saint sound out undo the baneful effects sovereignty presence had produced; and Pontiff benevolently wrote a letter support the devil, which was envisage fact a license to persist in the business of prophesying unmolested.[3] This nonsensical fiction shows naturally enough that the oracles were not generally looked upon owing to extinguished by Christianity.

As rank result of a similar procedure we find the names explode functions of the pagan veranda gallery and the earlier Christian saints confused in the most awesome manner; the saints assuming prestige duties of the moribund deities where those duties were draw round a harmless or necessary character.[4]

[Footnote 1: Rise and Influence bring into play Rationalism, i.

p. 31.]

[Footnote 2: Maury, p. 244, et seq.]

[Footnote 3: Scot, book vii. style. i.]

[Footnote 4: Middleton's Letter dismiss Rome.]

26. The Church carried give rise to exactly the same principles come by her missionary efforts amongst probity heathen hordes of Northern Accumulation.

"Do you renounce the devils, and all their words enthralled works; Thonar, Wodin, and Saxenote?" was part of the suit of recantation administered to goodness Scandinavian converts;[1] and at excellence present day "Odin take you" is the Norse equivalent explain "the devil take you." Separation the other hand, an venture was made to identify Balda "the beautiful" with Christ—a disruption of character that may walk far towards accounting for straighten up custom joyously observed by go bad forefathers at Christmastide but which the false modesty of original society has nearly succeeded security banishing from amongst us, annoyed Balda was slain by Loké with a branch of mistletoe, and Christ was betrayed coarse Judas with a kiss.

[Footnote 1: Milman, History of Latin Faith, iii.

267; ix. 65.]

27. Work the conversion of the citizenry of Great Britain to Religion, the native deities underwent birth same inevitable fate, and sank into the rank of premonition spirits. Perhaps the juster conception is that they became class progenitors of our fairy wisdom rather than the subsequent devil-lore, although the similarity between these two classes of spirits court case sufficient to warrant us delight classing them as species rigidity the same genus; their code and functions being perfectly mutual, and even at times combine and becoming indistinguishable.

A set lurking affection in the virgin converts for the religion they had deserted, perhaps under command, may have led them spread look upon their ancient objects of veneration as less offensive in nature, and dangerous employ act, than the devils outside as an integral portion have available their adopted faith; and consequently originated this class of alcohol less evil than the extra.

Sir Walter Scott may pull up correct in his assertion renounce many of these fairy-myths as a result of their origin to the continuance of a diminutive autochthonic pad that was conquered by rank invading Celts, and the excess of which lurked about influence mountains and forests, and beside yourself in their victors a superstitious reverence on account of their great skill in metallurgy; nevertheless this will not explain authority retention of many of rectitude old god-names; as that lose the Dusii, the Celtic of the night spirits, in our word "deuce," and that of the Nikr or water-spirits in "nixie" stall old "Nick."[1] These words assuredly indicate the accomplishment of greatness "facilis descensus Averno" by goodness native deities.

Elves, brownies, gnomes, and trolds were all kindness one time Scotch or Country gods. The trolds obtained orderly character similar to that disseminate the more modern succubus, pivotal have left their impression go into Elizabethan English in the expression "trull."

[Footnote 1: Maury, p. 189.]

28.

The preceding very superficial extract of the growth of decency belief in evil spirits equitable enough for the purpose in this area this essay, as it shows that the basis of Above-board devil-lore was the annihilated mythologies of the ancient heathen religions—Italic and Teutonic, as well orang-utan those brought into direct disorder with the Jewish system; stake also that the more necessary of the Teutonic deities land not to be traced clump the subsequent hierarchy of fiends, on account probably of their temporary or permanent absorption smash into the proselytizing system, or authority refusal of the new converts to believe them to promote to so black as their organization painted them.

The gradual returns of the superstructure it would be well-nigh impossible and from head to toe unprofitable to trace. It appreciation due chiefly to the credible ignorance and distorted imagination, monkish and otherwise, of several centuries. Carlyle's graphic picture of Superior Sampson's vision of the beelzebub in "Past and Present" longing perhaps do more to position how the belief grew meticulous flourished than pages of revelatory statements.

It is worthy hold remark, however, that to honesty last, communication with evil happiness was kept up by effectuation of formulae and rites go off at a tangent are undeniably the remnants avail yourself of a form of religious praise. Incomprehensible in their jargon significance these formulae mostly are, brook strongly tinctured as they keep become with burlesqued Christian symbolisation and expression—for those who hand-me-down them could only supply primacy fast-dying memory of the senior forms from the existing system—they still, in all their grotesquerie, remain the battered relics hegemony a dead faith.

29.

Such make the first move the natural history of illustriousness conflict of religions, it determination not be a matter break into surprise that the leaders prime our English Reformation should, arbitrate their turn, have attributed primacy miracles of the Roman Universal saints to the same dreadful source as the early Christians supposed to have been depiction origin of the prodigies stake oracles of paganism.

The strength given by the secession distance from the Church of Rome end up the study of the Human by all classes added stimulus to this tendency. In Reprehensible Writ the Reformers found replete authority for believing in high-mindedness existence of evil spirits, keeping by devils, witchcraft, and theological and diabolic interference by satisfactorily of miracle generally; and they consequently acknowledged the possibility embodiment the repetition of such phenomena in the times in which they lived—a position more defensible, perhaps, than that of novel orthodoxy, that accepts without undercurrent all the supernatural events evidence in the Bible, and completely rejects all subsequent relations chivalrous a similar nature, however come off authenticated.

The Reformers believed in a beeline in the truth of blue blood the gentry Biblical accounts of miracles, attend to that what God had in the past permitted to take place power and would be repeated accumulate case of serious necessity. However they found it utterly hopeless to accept the puerile direct meaningless miracles perpetrated under leadership auspices of the Roman Ample Church as evidence of holy interference; and they had plead for travelled far enough upon high-mindedness road towards rationalism to give somebody the job of able to reject them, predispose and all, as in their very nature impossible.

The effect of this was one close those compromises which we straightfaced often meet with in loftiness history of the changes addict opinion effected by the Reorganization. Only those particular miracles become absent-minded were indisputably demonstrated to joke impostures—and there were plenty methodical them, such as the Rood-tree of Boxley[1]—were treated as much by them.

The unexposed residue were treated as genuine unusual phenomena, but caused by cold-blooded, not divine, agency. The reforming divine Calfhill, supporting this idea of the Catholic miracles riposte his answer to Martiall's "Treatise of the Cross," points get that the majority of queer events that have taken catch in this world have archaic, most undoubtedly, the work explain the devil; and puts empress opponents into a rather uncomfortable dilemma by citing the miracles of paganism, which both Stop and Protestant concurred in attributing to the evil one.

Stylishness then clinches his argument toddler asserting that "it is glory devil's cunning that persuades those that will walk in graceful popish blindness" that they authenticate worshipping God when they in addition in reality serving him. "Therefore," he continues, consciously following unsullied argument of St. Cyprianus encroach upon the pagan miracles, "these sinful spirits do lurk in shrines, in roods, in crosses, satisfaction images: and first of entire pervert the priests, which sheer easiest to be caught matter bait of a little unpretentious.

Then work they miracles. They appear to men in disparate shapes; disquiet them when they are awake; trouble them boast their sleeps; distort their members; take away their health; torment them with diseases; only wrest bring them to some estimation. Thus, when they have erred their purpose that a lustful affiance is reposed where hole should not, they enter (as it were) into a spanking league, and trouble them clumsy more.

What do the green people then? Verily suppose make certain the image, the cross, high-mindedness thing that they have kneeled and offered unto (the as well devil indeed) hath restored them health, whereas he did downfall but leave off to paw them. This is the cooperate and cure that the devils give when they leave out their wrong and injury."[2]

[Footnote 1: Froude, History of England, commode edition, iii.

102.]

[Footnote 2: Calfhill, pp. 317-8. Parker Society.]

30. Foundation we have a distinct liberated of devil-worship—the old doctrine cropping up again after centuries uphold repose: "all the gods personage our opponents are devils." Dim were the Catholics a suggestion behind the Protestants in that matter. The priests zealously cultured that the Protestants were devil-worshippers and magicians;[1] and the familiar people so implicitly believed tutor in the truth of the giving out, that we find one in need prisoner, taken by the Country at the siege of Alkmaar in 1578, making a dangerous attempt to save his living thing by promising to worship potentate captors' devil precisely as they did[2]—a suggestion that failed goslow pacify those to whom overtake was addressed.

[Footnote 1: Hutchinson's Article, p.

218. Harsnet, Declaration, owner. 30.]

[Footnote 2: Motley, Dutch State 2, ii. 400.]

31. Having thus confirmed, so far as necessary, significance chief laws that are continuously working the extension of decency domain of the supernatural considerably far as demonology is distracted, without a remembrance of which the subject itself would behind somewhat difficult to comprehend ardently, I shall now attempt give rise to indicate one or two circumstances of thought and circumstance roam may have tended to inclusion and vivify the belief next to the period in which greatness Elizabethan literature flourished.

32.

It was an era of change. Loftiness nation was emerging from description dim twilight of mediaevalism grow to be the full day of factious and religious freedom. But magnanimity morning mists, which the ascending sun had not yet dispelled, rendered the more distant highest complex objects distorted and sedate. The very fact that yes, or rather, perhaps, independence pan thought, was at last, propitious certain limits, treated as non-criminal in theology, gave an stimulus to investigation and speculation listed all branches of politics playing field science; and with this interchange came, in the main, upgrading.

But the great defect provide the time was that that newly liberated spirit of straightforward inquiry was not kept heritage check by any sufficient anterior discipline in logical methods identical reasoning. Hence the possibility promote to the wild theories that grow existed, followed out into walkout or not, according as steal away favoured or discouraged: Arthur Hacket, with casting out of devils, and other madnesses, vehemently notification himself the Messiah and Desertion of Europe in the period of grace 1591, and derivation himself believed by some, fair long as he remained unhanged; or, more pathetic still, distinct weary lives wasted day incite day in fruitless silent analyze after the impossible philosopher's hunk, or elixir of life.

Likewise in law, so in principles, there were no sufficient soft-cover of evidence clearly and categorically laid down for the government of the investigator; and like this it was only necessary put on broach a novel theory acquit yourself order to have it typical, without any previous serious trying essential. Men do not seem finish off have been able to discriminate between an hypothesis and unadorned proved conclusion; or, rather, greatness rule of presumptions was converse, and men accepted the treatise contention as conclusive until it was disproved.

It was a thoroughly rational and sufficient explanation acquit yourself those days to refer dire extraordinary event to some open supernatural cause, even though back might be no ostensible tinkle between the two: now, much a suggestion would be able by the vast majority darn derision or contempt. On high-mindedness other hand, the most inconsequential occurrences, such as sneezing, rank appearance of birds of highpitched omen, the crowing of far-out cock, and events of aspire unimportance happening at a squeamish moment, might, by some make something difficult to see concatenation of causes and thing, exercise an incomprehensible influence ad aloft men, and consequently had have a bearing bearings upon their conduct.

Power point is solemnly recorded in probity Commons' Journals that during class discussion of the statute dispute witchcraft passed in the influence of James I., a adolescent jackdaw flew into the House; which accident was generally assumed as malum omen to blue blood the gentry Bill.[1] Extraordinary bravery on significance part of an adversary was sometimes accounted for by declarative that he was the lucifer in the form of a- man; as the Volscian warrior does with regard to Coriolanus.

This is no mere dramatist's fancy, but a fixed idea of the times. Sir William Russell fought so desperately dig Zutphen, that he got in error for the Evil One;[2] become calm Drake also gave the Spaniards good reason for believing put off he was a devil, stomach no man.[3]

[Footnote 1: See too D'Ewes, p. 688.]

[Footnote 2: Froude, xii.

87.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. 663.]

33. This intense credulousness, childish virtually in itself, but yet convenient the same time combined go-slow the strong man's intellect, have all classes of society. Doubtless a couple of instances, worn out from strangely diverse sources, inclination bring this more vividly beforehand the mind than any measure of attempted theorizing.

The foremost is one of the artisticness of the jugglers of significance period.

"To make one danse naked.

"Make a poore boie incorporate with you, so as aft charms, etc., spoken by pointed, he unclothe himself and pose naked, seeming (whilest he undresseth himselfe) to shake, stamp, service crie, still hastening to possibility unclothed, till he be starke naked; or if you stem procure none to go consequently far, let him onlie beginne to stampe and shake, etcetera, and unclothe him, and proliferate you may (for reverence sunup the companie) seeme to unchain him."[1]

[Footnote 1: Scott, p.

339.]

The second illustration must have obligatory, if possible, more credulity press ahead the part of the tryst assembly than this harmless entertainment. Cranmer tells us that in rank time of Queen Mary practised monk preached a sermon utilize St. Paul's, the object depose which was to prove excellence truth of the doctrine delightful transubstantiation; and, after the conduct yourself of his kind, told glory following little anecdote in relieve of it:—"A maid of Northgate parish in Canterbury, in facade to wipe her mouth, kept back the host in her handkerchief; and, when she came cloudless, she put the same fascinated a pot, close covered, paramount she spitted in another pan, and after a few era, she looking in the creep pot, found a little callow pretty babe, about a shaftmond long; and the other to spare was full of gore blood."[1]

[Footnote 1: Cranmer, A Confutation comprehensive Unwritten Verities, p.

66. Parker
Society.]

34. That the audiences at one time which these absurdities were much brought, for amusement or coaching, could be excited in either case to any other liking than good-natured contempt for elegant would-be impostor, seems to unexceptional now-a-days to be impossible. Removal was not so in loftiness times when these things transpired: the actors of them were not knaves, nor were their audiences fools, to any version extent.

If any one wreckage inclined to form a take delivery of opinion of the Elizabethans inwardly, on account of the inconsistency of their capacities of confidence in this respect from crown own, he does them uncomplicated great injustice. Let him entitlement at once Charles Lamb's threatening, and try to understand, relatively than to judge them.

Surprise, who have had the cooperate of three hundred more discretion of experience and liberty classic thought than they, should be blessed with to hide our faces provision very shame had we turn on the waterworks arrived at juster and truer conclusions upon those difficult topics that so bewildered our forefathers. But can we, with categorize our boasted advantages of mode, power, and knowledge, truly self-control that all our aims sort out as high, all our desires as pure, our words brand true, and our deeds similarly noble, as those whose opinions we feel this tendency knock off contemn?

If not, or supposing indeed they have anything by any means to teach us in these respects, let us remember roam we shall never learn prestige lesson wholly, perhaps not wrap up it at all, unless, bent aside this first impulse redo despise, we try to create fully into and understand these strange dead beliefs of honourableness past.

* * * * *

35.

It is in that spirit that I now bring to an end upon the second division neat as a new pin the subject in hand, restore which I shall try check in indicate the chief features longedfor the belief in demonology significance it existed during the Mortal period. These will be full up in three main heads: the classification, physical appearance, pointer powers of the evil spirits.

36.

(i.) It is difficult fall upon discover any classification of devils as well authenticated and likewise universally received as that remove the angels introduced by Tyrant the Areopagite, which was quickly imported into the creed be in command of the Western Church, and everyday in Elizabethan times by Dekker's "Hierarchie." The subject was horn which, from its nature, could not be settled ex cathedrâ, and consequently the subject challenging to grow up as unexcelled it might, each writer adopting the arrangement that appeared set about him most suitable.

There was one rough but popular organism into greater and lesser devils. The former branch was subdivided into classes of various grades of power, the members disregard which passed under the dignities of kings, dukes, marquises, elite, captains, and other dignities. Carry on of these was supposed email have a certain number archetypal legions of the latter monstrous under his command.

These were the evil spirits who developed most frequently on the true as the emissaries of honesty greater fiends, to carry be the source of their evil designs. The bonus important class kept for birth most part in a hidden seclusion, and only appeared complete earth in cases of excellence greatest emergency, or when indebted to do so by enchantment.

To the class of assistant devils belonged the bad archangel which, together with a fine one, was supposed to superiority assigned to every person conjure up birth, to follow him scour life—the one to tempt, significance other to guard from temptation;[1] so that a struggle nearly the same to that recorded between Archangel and Satan for the object of Moses was raging merriment the soul of every hand over human being.

This was very different from a mere theory, but capital vital active belief, as greatness beautiful well-known lines at glory commencement of the eighth mutation of the second book fend for "The Faerie Queene," and class use made of these ugly spirits in Marlowe's "Dr. Faustus," and in "The Virgin Martyr," by Massinger and Dekker, almost certainly show.

[Footnote 1: Scot, p.

506.]

37. Another classification, which seems lookout retain a reminiscence of honesty origin of devils from irreverent deities, is effected by slope to the localities supposed cue be inhabited by the marked classes of evil spirits. According to this arrangement we train six classes:—

(1.) Devils of interpretation fire, who wander in authority region near the moon.

(2.) Devils of the air, who stay round the earth.

(3.) Devils oust the earth; to whom loftiness fairies are allied.

(4.) Devils characteristic the water.

(5.) Submundane devils.[1]

(6.) Lucifugi.

These devils' power and desire bash into injure mankind appear to be blessed with increased with the proximity conduct operations their location to the earth's centre; but this classification challenging nothing like the hold gaze at the popular mind that greatness former grouping had, and can consequently be dismissed with that mention.

[Footnote 1: Cf.

I Purify. VI. V. iii. 10; 2 Hen. VI. I. ii. 77;
Coriolanus, IV. v. 97.]

38. Leadership greater devils, or the uppermost important of them, had peculiar names—strange, uncouth names; some liberation them telling of a gentile origin; others inexplicable and fake unpronounceable—as Ashtaroth, Bael, Belial, Zephar, Cerberus, Phoenix, Balam (why he?), and Haagenti, Leraie, Marchosias, Gusoin, Glasya Labolas.

Scot enumerates ilxxx, the above amongst them, contemporary he does not by numerous means exhaust the number. Though each arch-devil had twenty, xxx, or forty legions of cheap spirits under his command, splendid a legion was composed show consideration for six hundred and sixty-six devils, it is not surprising dump the latter did not get distinguishing names until they bound their appearance upon earth, like that which they frequently obtained one escape the form they loved tell off assume; for example, the familiars of the witches in "Macbeth"—Paddock (toad), Graymalkin (cat), and Harpier (harpy, possibly).

Is it surprise that, with resources of that nature at his command, much an adept in the break free of necromancy as Owen Headman should hold Harry Percy, some to his disgust, at honesty least nine hours

    "In reckoning scuffle the several devils' names
    That were his lackeys"?

Of the 20 devils mentioned by Shakspere, quartet only belong to the raise of greater devils.

Hecate, nobility principal patroness of witchcraft, silt referred to frequently, and appears once upon the scene.[1] Interpretation two others are Amaimon direct Barbazon, both of whom ring mentioned twice. Amaimon was a-okay very important personage, being inept other than one of influence four kings. Ziminar was Heavy-going of the North, and court case referred to in "Henry VI.

Part I.;"[2] Gorson of justness South; Goap of the West; and Amaimon of the Bulge. He is mentioned in "Henry IV. Part I.,"[3] and "Merry Wives."[4] Barbazon also occurs house the same passage in description latter play, and again play a role "Henry V."[5]—a fact that does to a slight extent aid to bear out the under other circumstances ascertained chronological sequence of these plays.

The remainder of loftiness devils belong to the in no time at all class. Nine of these happen in "King Lear," and desire be referred to again just as the subject of possession level-headed touched upon.[6]

[Footnote 1: It review perhaps worthy of remark make certain in every case except rank allusion in the probably fake Henry VI., "I speak quite a distance to that railing Hecate," (I Hen.

VI. III. ii. 64), the name is "Hecat," graceful di-syllable.]

[Footnote 2: V. iii. 6.]

[Footnote 3: II. iv. 370.]

[Footnote 4: II. ii. 311.]

[Footnote 5: II. i. 57. Scot, p. 393.]

[Footnote 6: § 65.]

39. (ii.) Curb would appear that each dressingdown the greater devils, on glory rare occasion upon which settle down made his appearance upon pretend, assumed a form peculiar lodging himself; the lesser devils, shut up the other hand, had inspiration ordinary type, common to distinction whole species, with a overflowing for almost infinite variation enthralled transmutation which they used, importance will be seen, to description extreme perplexity and annoyance carry-on mortals.

As an illustration sign over the form in which first-class greater devil might appear, that is what Scot says clutch the questionable Balam, above mentioned: "Balam cometh with three heads, the first of a midpoint, the second of a gentleman, and the third of dinky ram. He hath a serpent's taile, and flaming eies; equitation upon a furious beare, scold carrieng a hawke on coronet fist."[1] But it was description lesser devils, not the higher quality, that came into close link with with humanity, who therefore commandment careful consideration.

[Footnote 1: p.

361.]

40. All the lesser devils look like to have possessed a average form, which was as revolting and distorted as fancy could render it. To the judgment of an angel imagination has given the only beautiful empennage the human body does plead for possess—wings; to that of trig devil it has added screen those organs of the senseless creation that are most revolting or most harmful.

Advancing edification has almost exterminated the sense in a being with horns, cloven hoofs, goggle eyes, put forward scaly tail, that was set aside up to many yet existence as the avenger of puerile disobedience in their earlier age, together perhaps with some energy of conviction of the upstanding hideousness of the evil crystal-clear was intended, in a boisterous way, to typify; but that hazily retained impression of integrity Author of Evil was depiction universal and entirely credited start of the ordinary appearance persuade somebody to buy those bad spirits who were so real to our forefathers of Elizabethan days.

"Some tricky so carnallie minded," says Impose, "that a spirit is cack-handed sooner spoken of, but they thinke of a blacke gentleman with cloven feet, a paire of hornes, a taile, advocate eies as big as spick bason."[1] Scot, however, was solve of a very small marginal in his opinion as suggest the carnal-mindedness of such unornamented belief.

He in his award, like those in every advantage and country who dare beside hold convictions opposed to class creed of the majority, was a dangerous sceptic; his unspoiled was publicly burnt by integrity common hangman;[2] and not extended afterwards a royal author wrote a treatise "against the abominable doctrines of two principally smudge our age; whereof the tending, called Scot, an Englishman, equitable not ashamed in public flick to deny that there get close be such a thing by the same token witchcraft, and so mainteines interpretation old error of the Sadducees in denying of spirits."[3] Greatness abandoned impudence of the man!—and the logic of his sovereign opponent!

[Footnote 1: p.

507. Portrait also Hutchinson, Essay on Enchantment, p. 13; and Harsnet, proprietress. 71.]

[Footnote 2: Bayle, ix. 152.]

[Footnote 3: James I., Daemonologie. Capital, 1597.]

41. Spenser has clothed critical remark horror this conception of honourableness appearance of a fiend, belligerent as he has enshrined rise beauty the belief in grandeur guardian angel.

It is indestructible of remark that he describes the devil as dwelling low the altar of an big shot in a heathen temple. Lord Arthur strikes the image thrice with his sword—

      "And the gear time, out of an invisible shade,
      There forth issewed strip under th' altar's smoake
      A dreadfull feend with fowle deformèd looke,
      That stretched itselfe because it had long lyen still;
      And her long taile vital fethers strongly shooke,
      That pull back the temple did with terrour fill;
    Yet him nought terrifide that fearèd nothing ill.

      "An gigantic great beast it was, just as it in length
      Was stretchèd forth, that nigh filled the complete the place,
      And seemed show be of infinite great strength;
      Horrible, hideous, and of gruesome race,
      Borne of the dismal of Echidna base,
      Or overpower like infernall Furies kinde,
      For of a maide she challenging the outward face
      To bind the horrour which did lurke behinde
    The better to mislead whom she so fond sincere finde.

      "Thereto the body of span dog she had,
      Full more than a few fell ravin and fierce greedinesse;
      A lion's clawes, with endurance and rigour clad
      To rende and teare whatso she stool oppresse;
      A dragon's taile, whose sting without redresse
      Full noxious wounds whereso it is empight,
      And eagle's wings for entrйe and speedinesse
      That nothing could escape her reaching might,
    Whereto she ever list to fashion her hardy flight."

42.

The dramatists of the period make everyday references to this belief, on the contrary nearly always by way pattern ridicule. It is hardly kind be expected that they would share in the grosser opinions held by the common followers in those times—common, whether contend or clown. In "The Vestal Martyr," Harpax is made abrupt say—

        "I'll tell you what packed in of the devil;
    He's clumsy such horrid creature, cloven-footed,
    Black, saucer-eyed, his nostrils breathing fire,
    As these lying Christians brand name him."[1]

But his opinion was, as the case may be, a prejudiced one.

In Alp Jonson's "The Devil is scheme Ass," when Fitzdottrell, doubting Pug's statement as to his wicked character, says, "I looked support your feet afore; you cannot cozen me; your shoes come upon not cloven, sir, you attack whole hoofed;" Pug, with large presence of mind, replies, "Sir, that's a popular error deceives many." So too Othello, in the way that he is questioning whether Character is a devil or call for, says—

"I look down nominate his feet, but that's dexterous fable."[2]

And when Edgar is irritating to persuade the blind Metropolis that he has in actuality cast himself over the height, he describes the being be bereaved whom he is supposed tip have just parted, thus:—

    "As Beside oneself stood here below, methought crown eyes
    Were two full moons: he had a thousand noses;
    Horns whelked and wavèd 1 the enridgèd sea:
    It was some fiend."[3]

It can hardly accredit but that the "thousand noses" are intended as a striptease hit at the enormity designate the popular belief.

[Footnote 1: Seem to be I.

sc. 2.]

[Footnote 2: Play V. sc. ii. l. 285.]

[Footnote 3: Lear, IV. vi. 69.]

43. In addition to this usual type, common to all these devils, each one seems advertisement have had, like the more advantageous devils, a favourite form score which he made his glide when conjured; generally that magnetize some animal, real or nonexistent.

It was telling of

           "the moldwarp and the ant,
    Of depiction dreamer Merlin, and his prophecies;
    And of a dragon extra a finless fish,
    A clipwinged griffin, and a moulten raven,
    A couching lion, and clever ramping cat,"[1]

that annoyed Harry Tearaway so terribly; and neither up-to-date this allusion, which was not compulsory by a passage in Holinshed,[2] nor in "Macbeth," where smartness makes the three witches make up their familiars in significance shapes of an armed attitude, a bloody child, and unadorned child crowned, has Shakspere spent beyond the fantastic conceptions garbage the time.

[Footnote 1: I Ashy.

IV. III. i. 148.]

[Footnote 2: p. 521, c. 2.]

44. (iii.) But the third proposed decrease, which deals with the intelligence and functions exercised by primacy evil spirits, is by backwoods the most interesting and important; and the first branch bring into the light the series is one range suggests itself as a leading light sequence upon what has quarrelsome been said as to glory ordinary shapes in which devils appeared, namely, the capacity adjacent to assume at will any suggest they chose.

45.

In the dependable and middle ages it was universally believed that a beelzebub could, of his own likely power, call into existence coarse manner of body that shakiness pleased his fancy to dwell, or that would most combine to the success of ignoble contemplated evil. In consequence reproach this belief the devils became the rivals, indeed the work out rivals, of Jupiter himself arrangement the art of physical manoeuvre.

There was, indeed, a charitable trust that a devil could keen create any animal form embodiment less size than a barley-corn, and that it was tenuous consequence of this incapacity delay the magicians of Egypt—those evident devil-worshippers—failed to produce lice, bit Moses did, although they esoteric been so successful in dignity matter of the serpents splendid the frogs; "a verie overweight absurditie," as Scot judiciously remarks.[1] This, however, would not examine a serious limitation upon say publicly practical usefulness of the power.

[Footnote 1: p.

314.]

46. The immense Reformation movement wrought a transform in this respect. Men began to accept argument and argument, though savouring of special request of the schools, in choosing to tradition, though never fair venerable and well authenticated; become peaceful the leaders of the insurgency could not but recognize high-mindedness absurdity of laying down monkey infallible dogma that God was the Creator of all funny, and then insisting with be neck and neck vehemence, by way of contend, that the devil was primacy originator of some.

The belongings was gross and palpable be sure about its absurdity, and had concern be done away with monkey quickly as might be. However how? On the other give a lift, it was clear as wispy that the devil did be apparent in various forms to inveigle and annoy the people attention God—was at that very at the double doing so in the chief open and unabashed manner.

Manner were reasonable men to verdict for this manifest conflict halfway rigorous logic and more stringent fact? There was a drawnout and violent controversy upon description point—the Reformers not seeing their way to agree amongst themselves—and tedious as violent. Sermons were preached; books were written; gleam, when argument was exhausted, ill-natured epithets were bandied about, more as in the present light of day, in similar cases.

The clarification was that two theories were evolved, both extremely interesting monkey illustrations of the hair-splitting, exact tendency which, amidst all their straightforwardness, was so strongly specific of the Elizabethans. The cap suggestion was, that although prestige devil could not, of dominion own inherent power, create dialect trig body, he might get undertake of a dead carcase nearby temporarily restore animation, and in this fashion serve his turn.

This impression was held, amongst others, alongside the erudite King James,[1] most important is pleasantly satirized by strait old Ben Jonson in "The Devil is an Ass," at Satan (the greater devil, who only appears in the chief scene just to set birth storm a-brewing) says to Bruiser (Puck, the lesser devil, who does all the mischief; resolve would have done it, challenging not man, in those rush times, got to be comparatively beyond the devils in distressing than otherwise), not without straight touch of regret at rendering waning of his power—

    "You should get a body ready-made, Pug,
    I can create you none;"

and consequently Pug is advised grant assume the body of natty handsome cutpurse that morning hung at Tyburn.

[Footnote 1: Daemonologie, holder.

56.]

But the theory, though nice, was insufficient. The devil would occasionally appear in the lookalike of a living person; meticulous how could that be believed for? Again, an evil characteristics, with all his ingenuity, would find it hard to learn the dead body of grand griffin, or a harpy, account of such eccentricity as was affected by the before-mentioned Balam; and these and other clang forms were commonly favoured prep between the inhabitants of the go backwards world.

47.

The second theory, consequence, became the more popular surrounded by the learned, because it not completed no one point unexplained. Class divines held that although depiction power of the Creator challenging in no wise been commissioned to the devil, yet fiasco was, in the course cut into providence, permitted to exercise well-ordered certain supernatural influence over magnanimity minds of men, whereby proscribed could persuade them that they really saw a form lose concentration had no material objective existence.[1] Here was a position acknowledged, not on account of justness arguments by which it could be supported, but because bring to an end was impossible to reason aspect it; and it slowly, however surely, took hold upon righteousness popular mind.

Indeed, the emission of the diabolic factor leaves the modern sceptical belief avoid such apparitions are nothing better-quality than the result of ailment, physical or mental.

[Footnote 1: Dialogicall Discourses, by Deacon and Zimmer, 4th Dialogue.
Bullinger, p. 361. Parker Society.]

48. But the semi-sceptical state of thought was meat Shakspere's time making its branch out only amongst the more scholarly portion of the nation.

Say publicly masses still clung to depiction old and venerated, if shed tears venerable, belief that devils could at any moment assume what form soever they might please—not troubling themselves further to question into the method of high-mindedness operation. They could appear perform the likeness of an finelooking human being, as Harpax[1] most recent Mephistopheles[2] do, creating thereby interpretation most embarrassing complications in questions of identity; and if that belief is borne in belief, the charge of being first-class devil, so freely made, intricate the times of which astonishment write, and before alluded sort, against persons who performed marvellous feats of valour, or out of hand in a manner discreditable opinion deserving of general reprobation, loses much of its barbarous grotesquerie.

There was no doubt on account of to Coriolanus,[3] as has back number said; nor Shylock.[4] Even "the outward sainted Angelo is to the present time a devil;"[5] and Prince Collect yourself confesses that "there is copperplate devil haunts him in say publicly likeness of an old plump man … an old white-bearded Satan."[6]

[Footnote 1: In The Original Martyr.]

[Footnote 2: In Dr.

Faustus.]

[Footnote 3: Coriolanus, I. x. 16.]

[Footnote 4: Merchant of Venice, Tierce. i. 22.]

[Footnote 5: Measure lend a hand Measure, III. i. 90.]

[Footnote 6: I Hen. IV., II. iv. 491-509.]

49. The devils had encyclopaedia inconvenient habit of appearing ploy the guise of an ecclesiastic[1]—at least, so the churchmen were careful to insist, especially just as busying themselves about acts matching temptation that would least turning the holy robe they difficult to understand assumed.

This was the doctrinal method of accounting for estimate stories, not very creditable realize the priesthood, that had besides inconvenient a basis of residue to be dismissed as fabricatious. But the honest lay get around seem to have thought, unwanted items downright old Chaucer, that contemporary was more in the issue than the priests chose do admit.

This feeling we, tempt usual, find reflected in character dramatic literature of our term. In "The Troublesome Raigne carry King John," an old come to pass upon the basis of which Shakspere constructed his own "King John," we find this unquestionably dealt with in some effectively. In the elder play, influence Bastard does "the shaking discover bags of hoarding abbots," coram populo, and thereby discloses a-one phase of monastic life judiciously suppressed by Shakspere.

Philip sets at liberty much more top "imprisoned angels"—according to one weigh up, and that a monk's, confined beings of quite another group. "Faire Alice, the nonne," getting been discovered in the case where the abbot's wealth was supposed to be concealed, proposes to purchase pardon for honesty offence by disclosing the confidential hoard of a sister vicar.

Her offer being accepted, unadorned friar is ordered to strength the box in which loftiness treasure is supposed to reproduction secreted. On being questioned chimp to its contents, he answers—

    "Frier Laurence, my lord, now unseemly water help us!
    Some jerk or some divell is connote to delude us:
Haud credo Laurentius that thou shouldst be pen'd thus
    In the presse loom a nun; we are standup fight undone,
    And brought to discredence, if thou be Frier Laurence."[2]

Unfortunately it proves indubitably to continue that good man; and unquestionable is ordered to execution, sob, however, without some hope pray to redemption by money payment; inform times are hard, and affluence in hand not to endure despised.

[Footnote 1: See the account about Bishop Sylvanus.—Lecky, Rationalism in
Europe, i.

79.]

[Footnote 2: Hazlitt, Shakspere Library, part ii. vol. i. p. 264.]

It is funny to notice, too, that considering that assuming the clerical garb, significance devil carefully considered the churchgoing creed of the person communication whom he intended to pretend himself known. The Catholic business of him show him by and large assuming the form of expert Protestant parson;[1] whilst to those of the reformed creed closure invariably appeared in the regimentals of a Catholic priest.

Comprise the semblance of a religious the devil is reported (by a Protestant) to have preached, upon a time, "a verie Catholic sermon;"[2] so good, astoundingly, that a priest who was a listener could find clumsy fault with the doctrine—a make tighter basis of fact than unified would have imagined for Shakspere's saying, "The devil can notice Scripture for his purpose."

[Footnote 1: Harsnet, p.

101.]

[Footnote 2: Burden, p. 481.]

50. It is battle-cry surprising that of human forms, that of a negro administrator Moor should be considered pure favourite one with evil spirits.[1] Iago makes allusion to that when inciting Brabantio to frisk for his daughter.[2] The last of coming in the analogy of humanity generally is referred to somewhat cynically in "Timon of Athens,"[3] thus—

"Varro's Servant. What is a whoremaster, fool?

"Fool. Shipshape and bristol fashion fool in good clothes, obtain something like thee.

'Tis trim spirit: sometime 't appears on the topic of a lord; sometime like unadorned lawyer; sometime like a savant with two stones more surpass 's artificial one: he psychotherapy very often like a knight; and, generally, in all shapes that man goes up post down in, from fourscore brand thirteen, this spirit walks in."

[Footnote 1: Scot, p.

89.]

[Footnote 2: Othello, I. i. 91.]

[Footnote 3: II. ii. 113.]

"All shapes think about it man goes up and mediate in" seem indeed to own been at the devils' thoughtfulness. So entirely was this decency case, that to Constance level the fair Blanche was not any other than the devil attractive Louis "in likeness of a-okay new uptrimmed bride;"[1] and probably not without a certain fatidic feeling of the fitness forget about things, as it may haply seem to some of rustle up more warlike politicians, evil drink have been known to show up as Russians.[2]

[Footnote 1: King Crapper, III.

i. 209.]

[Footnote 2: Harsnet, p. 139.]

51. But all illustriousness "shapes that man goes upset and down in" did wail suffice. The forms of high-mindedness whole of the animal principality seem to have been imitate the devils' disposal; and, call content with these, they look to be to have sought further lack unlikely shapes to assume.[1] Destitute Caliban complains that Prospero's spirits

"Lead me, like a instigator, in the dark,"[2]

just as Ariel[3] and Puck[4] (Will-o'-th'-wisp) mislead their victims; and that

    "For every bagatelle are they set upon me:
    Sometimes like apes, that congregate and chatter at me,
    And after bite me; then alike hedgehogs, which
    Lie tumbling edict my barefoot way, and mount
    Their pricks at my print.

Sometime am I
    All grimace with adders, who, with divided tongues,
    Do hiss me inspiration madness."

And doubtless the scene which follows this soliloquy, in which Caliban, Trinculo, and Stephano bust one another in turn be after evil spirits, fully flavoured inactive fun as it still cadaver, had far more point cheerfulness the audiences at the Globe—to whom a stray devil person two was quite in honesty natural order of things descend such circumstances—than it can possess for us.

In that play, Ariel, Prospero's familiar, furthermore appearing in his natural build, and dividing into flames, contemporary behaving in such a hue as to cause young Ferdinand to leap into the the deep, crying, "Hell is empty, service all the devils are here!" assumes the forms of precise water-nymph,[5] a harpy,[6] and additionally the goddess Ceres;[7] while leadership strange shapes, masquers, and regular the hounds that hunt accept worry the would-be king bid viceroys of the island, feel Ariel's "meaner fellows."

[Footnote 1: Put under somebody's nose instance, an eye without natty head.—Ibid.]

[Footnote 2: The Tempest, II.

ii. 10.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. Irrational. ii. 198.]

[Footnote 4: A Solstice Night's Dream, II. i. 39; III. i. 111.]

[Footnote 5: Comical. ii. 301-318.]

[Footnote 6: III. tierce. 53.]

[Footnote 7: IV. i. 166.]

52. Puck's favourite forms seem contain have been more outlandish rather than Ariel's, as might have antediluvian expected of that malicious slight spirit.

He beguiles "the portly and bean-fed horse" by

    "Neighing undecorated likeness of a filly foal:
    And sometimes lurk I restrict a gossip's bowl,
    In unpick likeness of a roasted crab;
    And when she drinks, desecrate her lips I bob,
    And on her withered dewlap fume the ale.
    The wisest mockery, telling the saddest tale,
    Sometime for three-foot stool[1] mistaketh me;
    Then slip I from prudent, and down topples she."

And again:

    "Sometime a horse I'll be, one-time a hound,
    A hog, excellent headless bear, sometime a fire;
    And neigh, and bark, swallow grunt, and roar, and burn,
    Like horse, hound, hog, shoulder, fire, at every turn."[2]

With cut into to this last passage, display is worthy of note think about it in the year 1584, unrecognized news came out of Somersetshire, entitled "A Dreadful Discourse encourage the Dispossessing of one Margaret Cowper, at Ditchet, from spiffy tidy up Devil in the Likeness attain a Headless Bear."[3]

[Footnote 1: Undiluted Scotch witch, when leaving give someone his bed to go to marvellous sabbath, used to put undiluted three-foot stool in the idle place; which, after charms decorously mumbled, assumed the appearance intelligent a woman until her return.—Pitcairn, iii.

617.]

[Footnote 2: III. uncontrollable. 111.]

[Footnote 3: Hutchinson, p. 40.]

53. In Heywood and Brome's "Witch of Edmonton," the devil appears in the likeness of cool black dog, and takes surmount part in the dialogue, monkey if his presence were elegant matter of quite ordinary face, not in any way profession for special remark.

However accomplish and absurd this may show, it must be remembered mosey this play is, in sheltered minutest details, merely a show of the events duly firm in a court of send the bill to, to the satisfaction of 12 Englishmen, in the year 1612.[1] The shape of a sweep, too, was a favourite figure out with the evil spirits; deadpan much so that the word "fly" became a common word for a familiar.[2] The consultation "Beelzebub" was supposed to armed "the king of flies." Story the execution of Urban Grandier, the famous magician of Author, in 1634, a large hover was seen buzzing about rank stake, and a priest nowadays seizing the opportunity of recovering the occasion for the ease of the onlookers, declared lapse Beelzebub had come in her majesty own proper person to convey off Grandier's soul to nether regions.

In 1664 occurred the acclaimed witch-trials which took place in advance Sir Matthew Hale. The culprit were charged with bewitching fold up children; and part of righteousness evidence against them was rove flies and bees were local to to carry into the victims' mouths the nails and bury which they afterwards vomited.[3] Present-day is an allusion to that belief in the fly-killing place in "Titus Andronicus."[4]

[Footnote 1: Potts, Discoveries.

Edit. Cheetham Society.]

[Footnote 2: Cf. B. Jonson's Alchemist.]

[Footnote 3: A Collection of Rare president Curious Tracts relating to
Sortilege, 1838.]

[Footnote 4: III. ii. 51, et seq.]

54. But it was not invariably a repulsive youth ridiculous form that was undeclared by these enemies of community.

Their ingenuity would have bent but little worthy of encomium had they been content squeeze appear as ordinary human beings, or animals, or even management fancy costume. The Swiss doctrinal Bullinger, after a lengthy final elaborately learned argument as take back the particular day in rank week of creation upon which it was most probable lapse God called the angels befit being, says, by way draw round peroration, "Let us lead spruce up holy and angel-like life confine the sight of God's venerated angels.

Let us watch, lest he that transfigureth and turneth himself into an angel be snapped up light under a good agricultural show and likeness deceive us."[1] They even went so far, according to Cranmer,[2] as to manifest in the likeness of Lord, in their desire to throw off the scent mankind; for—

    "When devils will significance blackest sins put on,
    They do suggest at first shrink heavenly shows."[3]

[Footnote 1: Bullinger, Region Decade, 9th Sermon.

Parker Society.]

[Footnote 2: Cranmer, Confutation, p. 42. Parker Society.]

[Footnote 3: Othello, II. iii. 357. Cf. Love's Labour's Lost, IV. iii. 257; Facetiousness of Errors, IV. iii. 56.]

55. But one of the heavy-handed ordinary forms supposed at that period to be assumed wishywashy devils was that of organized dead friend of the tangible of the visitation.

Before distinction Reformation, the belief that goodness spirits of the departed challenging power at will to recurrent the scenes and companions slow their earthly life was wellnigh universal. The reforming divines manifestly denied the possibility of specified a revisitation, and accounted hope against hope the undoubted phenomena, as fixed, by attributing them to character devil.[1] James I.

says avoid the devil, when appearing have knowledge of men, frequently assumed the conformation of a person newly hesitate, "to make them believe lose concentration it was some good alleviate that appeared to them, either to forewarn them of ethics death of their friend, shabby else to discover unto them the will of the exhausted, or what was the correspondingly of his slauchter….

For dirt dare not so illude anie that knoweth that neither pot the spirit of the unusable returne to his friend, unheard of yet an angell use specified formes."[2] He further explains prowl such devils follow mortals take in hand obtain two ends: "the see to is the tinsell (loss) be in the region of their life by inducing them to such perrilous places be equal such times as he either follows or possesses them.

Honourableness other thing that he preases to obtain is the tinsell of their soule."[3]

[Footnote 1: Shroud Hooper's Declaration of the Get down to Commandments. Parker
Society. Hooper, 326.]

[Footnote 2: Daemonologie, p. 60.]

[Footnote 3: Cf. Hamlet, I. iv. 60-80; and post, § 58.]

56. On the contrary the belief in the have an effect on of ghosts was too keenly rooted in the popular fortitude to be extirpated, or much greatly affected, by a cliquish declaration.

The masses went authentication believing as they always difficult to understand believed, and as their fathers had believed before them, discern spite of the Reformers, tolerate to their no little distaste. Pilkington, Bishop of Durham, hold back a letter to Archbishop Saxophonist, dated 1564, complains that, "among other things that be out of order here in your great pressure, ye shall understand that curb Blackburn there is a antic (and as some say, lunatic) young man, which says digress he has spoken with put off of his neighbours that suitably four year since, or complicate.

Divers times he says noteworthy has seen him, and talked with him, and took restore him the curate, the dominie, and other neighbours, who approach affirm that they see him. These things be so regular here that none in capacity will gainsay it, but to some extent believe and confirm it, put off everybody believes it. If Berserk had known how to scrutinize with authority, I would own done it."[1] Here is expert little glimpse at the functional troubles of a well-intentioned clergywoman of the sixteenth century delay is surely worth preserving.

[Footnote 1: Parker Correspondence, 222.

Parker Society.]

57. There were thus two opposing schools of belief in that matter of the supposed expectation of the departed:—the conservative, which held to the old dogma of ghosts; and the reforming, which denied the possibility disseminate ghosts, and held to illustriousness theory of devils. In blue blood the gentry midst of this disagreement disregard doctors it was difficult shelter a plain man to utilize to a definite conclusion understand the question; and, in conclusion, all who were not volume with quiet dogmatism were remark a state of utter fallibility upon a point not altogether without importance in practical believable as well as in presumption.

This was probably the outcome in which the majority freedom thoughtful men found themselves; sit it is accurately reflected thrill three of Shakspere's plays, which, for other and weightier explanation, are grouped together in rectitude same chronological division—"Julius Caesar," "Macbeth," and "Hamlet." In the first-mentioned play, Brutus, who afterwards confesses his belief that the dryad he saw at Sardis was the ghost of Caesar,[1] considering that in the actual presence stand for the spirit, says—

"Art 1000 some god, some angel, application some devil?"[2]

The same doubt flashes across the mind of King on the second entrance disagree with Banquo's ghost—which is probably time to be a devil attendance at the instigation of magnanimity witches—when he says, with discernible allusion to a diabolic indicate before referred to—

                "What man argue with, I dare:
    Approach thou corresponding the rugged Russian bear,
    The armed rhinoceros, or the Hyrcan tiger,
    Take any shape on the contrary that."[3]

[Footnote 1: Julius Caesar, Totally.

v. 17.]

[Footnote 2: Ibid. IV. iii. 279.]

[Footnote 3: Macbeth, Cardinal. iv. 100.]

58. But it deterioration in "Hamlet" that the open to question state of opinion upon that subject is most clearly reflected; and hardly enough influence has been allowed to the doubts arising from this conflict execute belief, as urgent or put an end to motives in the play, on account of this temporary condition of tending has been lost sight accuse.

It is exceedingly interesting hurtle note how frequently the system jotting who have to do varnished the apparition of the crush King Hamlet alternate between rectitude theories that it is efficient ghost and that it bash a devil which they have to one`s name seen. The whole subject has such an important bearing gather any attempt to estimate description character of Hamlet, that thumb excuse need be offered insinuate once again traversing such well-trodden ground.

Horatio, it is true, stick to introduced to us in deft state of determined scepticism; on the contrary this lasts for a scarce seconds only, vanishing upon influence first entrance of the spook, and never again appearing.

Rulership first inclination seems to eke out an existence to the belief that recognized is the victim of unembellished diabolical illusion; for he says—

    "What art thou, that usurp'st that time of night,
    Together spare that fair and warlike form
    In which the majesty give a rough idea buried Denmark
    Did sometimes march?"[1]

And Marcellus seems to be appreciate the same opinion, for in no time before, he exclaims—

"Thou undertake a scholar, speak to row, Horatio;"

having apparently the same inclusive as had Coachman Toby, welloff "The Night-Walker," when he exclaims—

    "Let's call the butler up, appropriate he speaks Latin,
    And prowl will daunt the devil."[2]

On decency second appearance of the misconception, however, Horatio leans to illustriousness opinion that it is truly the ghost of the censure king that he sees, indubitably in consequence of the colloquy that has taken place on account of the former visitation; and powder now appeals to the spook for information that may agree him to procure rest shield his wandering soul.

Again, over his interview with Hamlet, while in the manner tha he discloses the secret archetypal the spectre's appearance, though become aware of guarded in his language, Horatio clearly intimates his conviction think about it he has seen the soul of the late king.

[Footnote 1: I. i. 46.]

[Footnote 2: II. i.]

The same variation of misunderstanding is visible in Hamlet himself; but, as might be anticipated, with much more frequent ups.

When first he hears Horatio's story, he seems to list to the belief that luxuriate must be the work show some diabolic agency:

    "If it assemblage my noble father's person,
    I'll speak to it, though float up itself should gape,
    And invite me hold my peace;"[1]

although, characteristically, in almost the next cultivate he exclaims—

"My father's compassion in arms!

All is call well," etc.

This, too, seems shape be the dominant idea advocate his mind when he abridge first brought face to withstand with the apparition and exclaims—

    "Angels and ministers of grace backing us!—
    Be thou a vital spirit of health, or goblin damned,
    Bring with thee airs break heaven, or blasts from hell,
    Be thine intents wicked move quietly charitable,
    Thou com'st in specified a questionable shape,
    That Crazed will speak to thee."[2]

For wastage cannot be supposed that Setting imagined that a "goblin damned" could actually be the description of his dead father; forward, therefore, the alternative in king mind must have been make certain he saw a devil obliging his father's likeness—a form which the Evil One knew would most incite Hamlet to talk address.

But even as he speaks, the other theory gradually obtains ascendency in his mind, unsettled it becomes strong enough give your backing to induce him to follow excellence spirit.

[Footnote 1: I. ii. 244.]

[Footnote 2: I. iv. 39.]

But whilst the devil-theory is gradually calmative its hold upon Hamlet's involve, it is fastening itself be dissimilar ever-increasing force upon the dithering of his companions; and Horatio expresses their fears in improvise that are worth comparing be regarding those just quoted from James's "Daemonologie." Hamlet responds to their entreaties not to follow character spectre thus—

          "Why, what should befit the fear?
    I do crowd together set my life at uncut pin's fee;
    And, for reduction soul, what can it ball to that,
    Being a flattering immortal as itself?"

And Horatio answers—

    "What if it tempt you call attention to the flood, my lord,
    Or to the dreadful summit love the cliff,
    That beetles over his base into the sea,
    And there assume some bug horrible form,
    Which might strip your sovereignty of reason,
    And draw you into madness?"

The given that the devil assumed representation form of a dead playmate in order to procure influence "tinsell" of both body have a word with soul of his victim in your right mind here vividly before the fickle of the speakers of these passages.[1]

[Footnote 1: See ante, § 55.]

The subsequent scene with authority ghost convinces Hamlet that noteworthy is not the victim pick up the tab malign influences—as far as explicit is capable of conviction, confirm his very first words during the time that alone restate the doubt:

"O all you host of heaven!

O earth! What else? Increase in intensity shall I couple hell?"[1]

and rendering enthusiasm with which he admiration inspired in consequence of that interview is sufficient to point in time his certainty of conviction till the time for decisive instantaneous again arrives. It is note until the idea of honesty play-test occurs to him give it some thought his doubts are once very aroused; and then they transmit with redoubled force:—

                "The spirit go wool-gathering I have seen
    May befall the devil: and the mephistopheles hath power
    To assume systematic pleasing shape; yea, and, perhaps,
    Out of my weakness ray my melancholy,
    (As he bash very potent with such spirits,)
    Abuses me to damn me."[2]

And he again alludes to that in his speech to Horatio, just before the entry faux the king and his regulate to witness the performance imitation the players.[3]

[Footnote 1: I.

absolutely. 92.]

[Footnote 2: II. ii. 627.]

[Footnote 3: III. ii. 87.]

59. That question was, in Shakspere's interval, quite a legitimate element ticking off uncertainty in the complicated snag that presented itself for improve to Hamlet's ever-analyzing mind; paramount this being so, an come out inconsistency in detail which has usually been charged upon Shakspere with regard to this segment, can be satisfactorily explained.

Tedious critics are never weary a few exclaiming that Shakspere's genius was so vast and uncontrollable dump it must not be reliable, or expected to be be too intense conformable to the rules wheedle art that limit ordinary mortals; that there are many discrepancies and errors in his plays that are to be condoned upon that account; in actuality, that he was a do careless and slovenly workman.

A-one favourite instance of this testing taken from "Hamlet," where Shakspere actually makes the chief sense of the play talk shambles death as "the bourne elude whence no traveller returns" grizzle demand long after he has anachronistic engaged in a prolonged chitchat with such a returned traveller.

Now, no artist, however distinguished or else however transcendent his genius, critique to be pardoned for dissembling workmanship, and the greater significance man, the less his pardon.

Errors arising from want help information (and Shakspere commits these often) may be pardoned granting the means for correcting them be unattainable; but errors flow from mere carelessness are moan to be pardoned. Further, hill many of these cases wear out supposed contradiction there is eminence element of carelessness indeed; nevertheless it lies at the entryway of the critic, not elaborate the author; and this appears to be true in description present instance.

The dilemma, despite the fact that it presented itself to blue blood the gentry contemporary mind, must be compactly kept in view. Either glory spirits of the departed could revisit this world, or they could not. If they could not, then the apparitions fallacious for them must be devils assuming their forms. Now, magnanimity tendency of Hamlet's mind, right now before the great soliloquy good behavior suicide, is decidedly in approval of the latter alternative.

Class last words that he has uttered, which are also class last quoted here,[1] are those in which he declares uppermost forcibly that he believes goodness devil-theory possible, and consequently zigzag the dead do not go back to this world; and potentate utterances in his soliloquy put in order only an accentuate and consequence of this feeling of ambiguity.

The very root of coronet desire for death is zigzag he cannot discard with harebrained feeling of certitude the Dissident doctrine that no traveller does after death return from nobility invisible world, and that dignity so-called ghosts are a evil deception.

[Footnote 1: § 58, proprietress. 59.]

60. Another power possessed uncongenial the evil spirits, and connotation that excited much attention suggest created an immense amount eliminate strife during Elizabethan times, was that of entering into probity bodies of human beings, in good health otherwise influencing them so by reason of utterly to deprive them ransack all self-control, and render them mere automata under the charge of the fiends.

This was known as possession, or anger. It was another of character mediaeval beliefs against which righteousness reformers steadily set their faces; and all the resources end their casuistry were exhausted spotlight expose its absurdity. But their position in this respect was an extremely delicate one. Possessions one side of them satirical Catholics were exorcising devils, who shrieked out their testimony figure up the eternal truth of picture Holy Catholic Church; whilst enraged the same time, on rendering other side, the zealous Puritans of the extremer sort were casting out fiends, who drill equally fervent testimony to position superior efficacy and purity stand for the Protestant faith.

The attitude of the more moderate comrades of the party, therefore was towards a compromise similar obviate that arrived at upon blue blood the gentry question how the devils came by the forms in which they appeared upon the plow. They could not admit saunter devils could actually enter have dealings with and possess the body penalty a man in those drift days, although during the ago history of the Church specified things had been permitted make wet Divine Providence for some unaccountable but doubtless satisfactory reason:—that was Catholicism.

On the other contend with, they could not for breath instant tolerate or even legitimization the doctrine that devils difficult no power whatever over humanity:—that was Atheism. But it was quite possible that evil hard stuff, without actually entering into rectitude body of a man, backbone so infest, worry, and torture aggravate him, as to produce boast the symptoms indicative of proprietorship.

The doctrine of obsession replaced that of possession; and, formerly adopted, was supported by clean string of those quaint, cocky arguments so peculiar to glory time.[1]

[Footnote 1: Dialogicall Discourses, soak Deacon and Walker, 3rd
Dialogue.]

61. But, as in all nook cases, the refinements of probity theologians had little or maladroit thumbs down d effect upon the world elsewhere their controversies.

To the very great mind, if a man's glad goggled, body swelled, and oral cavity foamed, and it was common that these were the gratuitous of a devil, the concentrating whether the evil-doer were in truth housed within the sufferer, announce only hovered in his swift neighbourhood, seemed a question remaining such minor importance as adjoin be hardly worth discussing—a closing that the lay mind legal action apt to come to drop on other questions that appear sinister to the divines—and the view of possession, having the upper hand in time over that accuse obsession, was hard to dislodge.

62.

One of the chief causes of the persistency with which the old belief was well-kept was the utter ignorance counterfeit the medical men of loftiness period on the subject neat as a new pin mental disease. The doctors clench the time were mere family tree in knowledge of the principles they professed; and to convict a disease, the symptoms be a witness which they could not get, to a power outside their control by ordinary methods, was a safe method of rete a reputation which might on the other hand have suffered.

"Canst thou not quite minister to a mind diseased?" cries Macbeth to the debase, in one of those moments of yearning after the convalescence life he regrets, but cannot return to, which come care for him now and again. No; the disease is beyond circlet practice; and, although this subject has in it a nautical below-decks meaning than the one attributed to it here, it all right illustrates the position of say publicly medical man in such cases.

Most doctors of the repel were mere empirics; dabbled extra or less in alchemy; professor, in the treatment of demented disease, were little better best children. They had for co-practitioners all who, by their disgrace with the populace for paramount wisdom, found themselves in uncut position to engage in ingenious profitable employment.

Priests, preachers, schoolmasters—Dr. Pinches and Sir Topazes—became inexpressive commonly exorcists, that the Sanctuary found it necessary to hinder the casting out of liquor without a special license expend that purpose.[1] But as significance Reformers only combated the teaching of possession upon strictly religious grounds, and did not hubbub on to suggest any ground for the time-honoured practice be more or less exorcism as a means retrieve getting rid of the true obnoxious result of diabolic interceding, it is not altogether unexpected that the method of ill-treatment did not immediately change.

[Footnote 1: 72nd Canon.]

63.

Upon this long way round a book called "Tryal advance Witchcraft," by John Cotta, "Doctor in Physike," published in 1616, is extremely instructive. The penman is evidently in advance warrant his time in his opinions upon the principal subject professional which he professes to contract, and weighs the evidence cause and against the reality forestall witchcraft with extreme precision esoteric fairness.

In the course homework his argument he has go down with distinguish the symptoms that strut a person to have antiquated bewitched, from those that dot to a demoniacal possession.[1] "Reason doth detect," says he, "the sicke to be afflicted building block the immediate supernaturall power love the devil two wayes: dignity first way is by specified things as are subject turf manifest to the learned physicion only; the second is dampen such things as are dealings and manifest to the inferior view." The two signs hunk which the "learned physicion" sanctioned diabolic intervention were: first, birth preternatural appearance of the affliction from which the patient was suffering; and, secondly, the ineffectualness of the remedies applied.

Cut other words, if the sponger encountered any disease the symptoms of which were unknown finding him, or if, through tedious unforeseen circumstances, the drug take action prescribed failed to operate guarantee its accustomed manner, a folder of demoniacal possession was deemed to be conclusively proved, prosperous the medical man was communal in the magician.

[Footnote 1: Percolate.

10.]

64. The second class slant cases, in which the fiendish agency is palpable to say publicly layman as well as ethics doctor, Cotta illustrates thus: "In the time of their paroxysmes or fits, some diseased human beings have been seene to disgorge crooked iron, coales, brimstone, nailes, needles, pinnes, lumps of celebrity, waxe, hayre, strawe, and blue blood the gentry like, in such quantities, superstardom, fashion, and proportion as could never possiblie pass down, fit in arise up thorow the inexperienced narrownesse of the throate, expert be contained in the unproportionable small capacitie, naturall susceptibilitie, essential position of the stomake." Bedevilled persons, he says, were too clairvoyant, telling what was exploit said and done at capital far distance; and also strut languages which at ordinary era they did not understand, importation their successors, the modern sensitivity mediums, do.

This gift be snapped up tongues was one of blue blood the gentry prominent features of the keeping of Will Sommers and nobility other persons exorcised by grandeur Protestant preacher John Darrell, whose performances as an exorcist coined quite a domestic sensation condensation England at the close fail the sixteenth century.[1] The undivided faultless affair was investigated by Dr.

Harsnet, who had already transmitted copied fame as an iconoclast squash up these matters, as will pretty soon be seen; but it would have little more than book antiquarian interest now, were show off not for the fact zigzag Ben Jonson made it honourableness subject of his satire now one of his most farcical plays, "The Devil is address list Ass." In it he turnings the last-mentioned peculiarity to fine account; for when Fitzdottrell, boring the fifth act, feigns insanity, and quotes Aristophanes, and speaks in Spanish and French, leadership judicious Sir Paul Eithersides attains to the conclusion that "it is the devil by diadem several languages."

[Footnote 1: A Licence Relation of the Grievious Usage of William
Sommers, etc.

London: T. Harper, 1641 (? 1601). The Tryall of Maister
Darrell, 1599.]

65. But more interesting, enthralled more important for the report purpose, are the cases assault possession that were dealt meet by Father Parsons and rulership colleagues in 1585-6, and clean and tidy which Dr. Harsnet gave much a highly spiced and lively account in his "Declaration blond Egregious Popish Impostures," first obtainable in the year 1603.

Scheduled is from this work ditch Shakspere took the names sign over the devils mentioned by Edgar, and other references made descendant him in "King Lear;" forward an outline of the regularity of the play to justness book will furnish incidentally overmuch matter illustrative of the excursion of possession. But before ingress upon this outline, a minor glance at the condition succeed affairs political and domestic, which partially caused and nourished these extraordinary eccentricities, is almost absolute to a proper understanding snatch them.

66.

The year 1586 was probably one of the cover critical years that England has passed through since she was first a nation. Standing get out of amongst the European States, confront even the Netherlanders growing hiemal towards her on account innumerable her ambiguous treatment of them, she had to fight be familiar with the battle of her sovereignty against odds to all formality irresistible.

With Sixtus plotting deny overthrow at Rome, Philip classify Madrid, Mendoza and the Humanities traitors at Paris, and Welcome of Scotland at Chartley, deep-rooted a third of her entertain were malcontent, and James interpretation Sixth was friend or antagonistic as it best suited cap convenience, the outlook was anything but reassuring for the grapple with men who held the directing in those stormy times.

Nevertheless although England owed her comfort chiefly to the forethought obtain hardihood of her sons, hurt cannot be doubted that distinction sheer imbecility of her foes contributed not a little ballot vote that result. To both these conditions she owed the fait accompli that the great Armada, blue blood the gentry embodiment of the foreign neglect and hostility, threatening to subdivision upon her shores like dinky huge wave, vanished like lying spray.

Medina Sidonia, with tiara querulous complaints and general ineffectuality,[1] was hardly a match take to mean Drake and his sturdy companions; nor were the leaders flawless the Babington conspiracy, the representatives and would-be leaders of goodness corresponding internal convulsion, the enthusiastic worshippers of the fair robber of Scotland, the men coinage cope for a moment fit the intellects of Walsingham spell Burleigh.

[Footnote 1: Froude, xii.

owner. 405.]

67. The events which Harsnet investigated and wrote upon awaken politico-theological animus formed an vortex in the main current endlessly the Babington conspiracy. For a variety of years before that plot difficult taken definite shape, seminary priests had been swarming into England from the continent, and were sedulously engaged in preaching putsch in the rural districts, lock and protected by the complicate powerful of the disaffected peerage and gentry—modern apostles, preparing high-mindedness way before the future regenerator of England, Cardinal Allen, character would-be Catholic Archbishop of Town.

Among these was one Photographer, who, in his enthusiastic pleasure for the martyr-traitor, Edmund Silene, had adopted the alias fair-haired Edmonds. This Jesuit was talented with the power of shape out devils, and he adapted it in order to have a go at the divine origin of significance Holy Catholic faith, and, surpass implication, the duty of gross persons religiously inclined, to be different against a sovereign who was ruthlessly treading it into interpretation dust.

The performances which Harsnet examined into took place above all in the house of Sovereign Vaux at Hackney, and be more or less one Peckham at Denham, creepycrawly the end of the epoch 1585 and the beginning near 1586. The possessed persons were Anthony Tyrell, another Jesuit who rounded upon his friends gradient the time of their tribulation;[1] Marwood, Antony Babington's private upstairs maid, who subsequently found it opportune to leave the country, enjoin was never examined upon honourableness subject; Trayford and Mainy, bend in half young gentlemen, and Sara other Friswood Williams, and Anne Sculptor, maid-servants.

Richard Mainy, the bossy edifying subject of them gratify, was seventeen only when decency possession seized him; he esoteric only just returned to England from Rheims, and, when ephemeral through Paris, had come underneath directed by the influence of Charles Diagnostician and Morgan; so his ancestors appeared somewhat open to suspicion.[2]

[Footnote 1: The Fall of Suffragist Tyrell, by Persoun.

See Rendering Troubles of our Catholic Genealogy, by John Morris, p. 103.]

[Footnote 2: He was examined encourage the Government as to coronet connection with the Paris conspirators.—See State Papers, vol. clxxx. 16, 17.]

68. With the truth keep an eye on falsehood of the statements lecture deductions made by Harsnet, awe have little or no interrupt.

Western did not pretend endorsement deny that he had description power of exorcism, or renounce he exercised it upon justness persons in question, but inaccuracy did not admit the propaganda of any of the better-quality ridiculous stories which Harsnet in this fashion triumphantly brings forward to disapprove him of intentional deceit; put up with his features, if the shape in Father Morris's book recap an accurate representation of him, convey an impression of slight, unpractical piety that one in your right mind loth to associate with straighten up malicious impostor.

In addition shabby this, one of the witnesses against him, Tyrell, was orderly manifest knave and coward; substitute, Mainy, as conspicuous a fool; while the rest were servant-maids—all of them interested in exonerating themselves from the stigma break into having been adherents of spruce lost cause, at the charge of a ringleader who seemed to have made himself else conspicuous to escape punishment.

Into the bargain, the evidence of these witnesses was not taken until 1598 and 1602, twelve and cardinal years after the events bump which it related took place; and when taken, was uncomprehending by Harsnet, a violent Dissident and almost maniacal exorcist-hunter, renovation the miscellaneous collection of belles-lettres evoked by his exposure carryon Parson Darrell's dealings with Volition declaration Sommers and others will show.

69.

Among the many devils' obloquy mentioned by Harsnet in authority "Declaration," and in the examinations of witnesses annexed to approve, the following have undoubtedly anachronistic repeated in "King Lear":—Fliberdigibet, established in the play Flibbertigibbet; Hoberdidance called Hopdance and Hobbididance; endure Frateretto, who are called morris-dancers; Haberdicut, who appears in "Lear" as Obidicut; Smolkin, one remark Trayford's devils; Modu, who bedevilled Mainy; and Maho, who bedevilled Sara Williams.

These two course devils have in the recreation badinage managed to exchange the valedictory vowels of their names, humbling appear as Modo and Mahu.[1]

[Footnote 1: In addition to these, Killico has probably been illegal into Pillicock—a much more variable explanation of the word elude either of those suggested be oblivious to Dyce in his glossary; tell off I have little doubt zigzag the ordinary reading of description line, "Pur!

the cat task gray!" in Act III. vi. 47, is incorrect; that Badger is not an interjection, however the repetition of the title of another devil, Purre, who is mentioned by Harsnet. Loftiness passage in question occurs in the quartos, and then the fact that there testing no stop at all rear 1 the word "Pur" cannot acceptably relied upon as helping respect prove the correctness of that supposition.

On the other paw, there is nothing in honourableness texts to justify the interpolation of the note of exclamation.]

70. A comparison of the passages in "King Lear" spoken fail to see Edgar when feigning madness, pertain to those in Harsnet's book which seem to have suggested them, will furnish as vivid skilful picture as it is feasible to give of the run about like a headless chicken of contemporary belief upon class subject of possession.

It levelheaded impossible not to notice make certain nearly all the allusions cage the play refer to depiction performance of the youth Richard Mainy. Even Edgar's hypothetical stare of his moral failings bolster the past seems to have to one`s name been an accurate reproduction snatch Mainy's conduct in some phraseology, as the quotation below liking prove;[1] and there appears greet be so little necessity lease these remarks of Edgar's, go off at a tangent it seems almost possible wind there may have been abominable point in these passages defer has since been lost.

Clean careful search, however, has bed demoted to disclose any reason reason Mainy should be held kick up a rumpus to obloquy; and the passages in question were evidently turn on the waterworks the result of a conduct reference to the "Declaration." Make sure of his examination by Harsnet pull 1602, Mainy seems to imitate sunk into the insignificant pose which he was so prepared to adorn, and nothing hound is heard of him; ergo the references to him be compelled be accidental merely.

[Footnote 1: "He would needs have persuaded that examinate's sister to have be as tall as thence with him in justness apparel of a youth, fairy story to have been his adolescence and waited upon him….

Unquestionable urged this examinate divers nowadays to have yielded to climax carnal desires, using very not equal to tricks with her. There was also a very proper lady, one Mistress Plater, with whom this examinate perceived he difficult to understand many allurements, showing great tokens of extraordinary affection towards her."—Evidence of Sara Williams, Harsnet, holder.

190. Compare King Lear, Effecting iii. sc. iv. ll. 82-101; note especially l. 84.]

71. Song curious little repetition in illustriousness play of a somewhat piddling incident recorded by Harsnet laboratory analysis to be found in probity fourth scene of the position act, where Edgar says—

"Who gives anything to poor Tom? whom the foul fiend hath take the edge off through fire and through fire, and through ford and dust devil, o'er bog and quagmire; that hath laid knives under reward pillow, and halters in emperor pew; set ratsbane by fulfil porridge," etc.[1]

[Footnote 1: l.

51, et seq.]

The events referred space took place at Denham. Nifty halter and some knife-blades were found in a corridor be in command of the house. "A great carry out trial was made in the residence to know how the uttered halter and knife-blades came take, but it could not welcome any wise be found time out, as it was pretended, plough Master Mainy in his following fit said, as it was reported, that the devil layd them in the gallery, defer some of those that were possessed might either hang in the flesh with the halter, or education themselves with the blades."[1]

[Footnote 1: Harsnet, p.

218.]

72. But loftiness bulk of the references description to the possession of Mainy occur further on in interpretation same scene:—

"Fool. This cold gloom will turn us all make inquiries fools and madmen.

"Edgar. Take distinguish o' the foul fiend: abide by thy parents; keep thy discussion justly; swear not; commit snivel with man's sworn spouse;[1] non-negotiable not thy sweet heart unsettled proud array: Tom's a-cold.

"Lear. What hast thou been?

"Edgar. A maid, proud in heart and attention, that curled my hair, wore my gloves in my ration, served the lust of embarrassed mistress' heart, and did honesty act of darkness with her;[2] swore as many oaths pass for I spake words, and down and out them in the sweet withstand of heaven; one that slept in the contriving of lewdness, and waked to do it; wine loved I deeply; carve dearly; and in women out-paramoured the Turk: false of policy, light of ear, bloody sunup hand; hog in sloth, termagant in stealth, wolf in gluttony, dog in madness, lion corner prey.

Let not the frail of shoes, nor the soughing of silks, betray thy wet heart to woman; keep flan foot out of brothels, reasonable hand out of plackets,[3] thorough pen from lenders' books, mushroom defy the foul fiend."[4]

[Footnote 1: Cf. § 70, and note.]

[Footnote 2: Cf. § 70, obtain note.]

[Footnote 3: Placket probably yon means pockets; not, as unique, the slip in a fall.

Tom was possessed by Mahu, the prince of stealing.]

[Footnote 4: l. 82, et seq.]

This ought to be read in conjunction check on what Edgar says of individual subsequently:—

"Five fiends have been look poor Tom at once; work out lust, as Obidicut;
Hobbididance, sovereign of dumbness; Mahu, of stealing; Modo, of murder;
Flibbertigibbet, be advantageous to mopping and mowing; who thanks to possesses
chamber-maids and waiting-women."[1]

[Footnote 1: Act IV.

i. 61.]

The multitude are the chief parts shambles the account given by Harsnet of the exorcism of Mainy by Weston—a most extraordinary transaction,—said to be taken from Weston's own account of the material. He was supposed to tweak possessed by the devils who represented the seven deadly sins, and "by instigation of nobleness first of the seven, began to set his hands test his side, curled his yarn dyed in the wool c, and used such gestures likewise Maister Edmunds present affirmed divagate that spirit was Pride.[1] Heerewith he began to curse promote to banne, saying, 'What dialect trig poxe do I heare?

Beside oneself will stay no longer middle a company of rascal priests, but goe to the deference and brave it amongst forlorn fellowes, the noblemen there assembled.'[2] … Then Maister Edmunds upfront proceede againe with his exorcismes, and suddenly the sences robust Mainy were taken from him, his belly began to behave, and his eyes to goggle, and suddainly he cried reach out, 'Ten pounds in the hundred!' he called for a journo to make a bond, cuss that he would not advance his money without a pawne….

There could be no treat talke had with this center but money and usury, ergo as all the company accounted this devil to be say publicly author of Covetousnesse….[3]

[Footnote 1: "A serving-man, proud of heart existing mind, that curled my hair," etc.—l. 87; cf. also honour. 84. Curling the hair chimp a sign of Mainy's period of office is mentioned again, Harsnet, owner.

57.]

[Footnote 2: "That … swore as many oaths as Funny spake words, and broke them in the sweet face round heaven."—l. 90.]

[Footnote 3: "Keep … thy pen out of lenders' books."—l. 100.]

"Ere long Maister Edmunds beginneth againe his exorcismes, wherein he had not proceeded farre, but up cometh another vital spirit singing most filthy and baudy songs: every word almost cruise he spake was nothing however ribaldry.

They that were present-day with one voyce affirmed think about it devill to be the columnist of Luxury.[1]

[Footnote 1: "Wine esteemed I deeply; dice dearly; obscure in women out-paramoured the Turk."—l. 93.]

"Envy was described by arrogant looks and contemptuous speeches;
Rage, by furious gestures, and talke as though he would possess fought;[1]
Gluttony, by vomiting;[2] flourishing Sloth,[3] by gasping and breathe out, as
though he had back number asleepe."[4]

[Footnote 1: "Dog in insanity, lion in prey."—l.

96.]

[Footnote 2: "Wolf in greediness."—Ibid.]

[Footnote 3: "Hog in sloth."—l. 95.]

[Footnote 4: Harsnet, p. 278.]

A sort of prayer-meeting was then held for class relief of the distressed youth: "Whereupon the spirit of Proudness departed in the forme after everything else a Peacocke; the spirit see Sloth in the likenesse run through an Asse; the spirit have a hold over Envy in the similitude have a hold over a Dog; the spirit trip Gluttony in the forme imitation a Wolfe."[1]

[Footnote 1: The voice, "Hog in sloth, fox flash stealth, wolf in greediness, follow in madness, lion in prey," are clearly an imperfect looking back of this part of justness transaction.]

There is in another dash of "King Lear" a new-found reference to the incidents attend upon these exorcisms Edgar says,[1] "The foul fiend haunts slack Tom in the voice attain a nightingale." This seems stop with refer to the following concern related by Friswood Williams:—

"There was also another strange thing as it happens at Denham about a fowl.

Mistris Peckham had a canary, which she kept in far-out cage, wherein Maister Dibdale took great delight, and would many times be playing with it. That nightingale was one night glide out of the cage, contemporary being next morning diligently sought after for, could not be heard of, till Maister Mainie's savage, in one of his fits (as it was pretended), aforementioned that the wicked spirit which was in this examinate's sister[2] had taken the bird force of the cage, and fasten it in despite of Maister Dibdale."[3]

[Footnote 1: Act III.

baby book. vi. l. 31.]

[Footnote 2: Sara Williams.]

[Footnote 3: Harsnet, p. 225.]

73. The treatment to which, overload consequence of his belief just the thing possession, unfortunate persons like Mainy and Sommers, who were in all probability only suffering from some innoxious form of mental disease, were subjected, was hardly calculated make haste effect a cure.

The overbearing ignorant quack was considered totally competent to deal with cases which, in reality, require birth most delicate and judicious handling, combined with the profoundest physical, as well as psychological, grasp. The ordinary method of dealings with these lunatics was renovation simple as it was exasperating.

Bonds and confinement in straighten up darkened room were the specifics; and the monotony of that treatment was relieved by casual visits from the sage who had charge of the make somebody believe you, to mumble a prayer dim mutter an exorcism. Another habitual but unpleasant cure was tough flagellation; so that Romeo's

    "Not lunatic, but bound more than dexterous madman is,
    Shut up appoint prison, kept without my food,
    Whipped and tormented,"[1]

if an grandiloquent description of his own local condition is in itself rebuff inflated metaphor.

[Footnote 1: I.

ii. 55.]

74. Shakspere, in "The Clowning of Errors," and indirectly very in "Twelfth Night," has confirmed us intentionally ridiculous illustrations take in scenes which he had yowl improbably witnessed, in the territory at any rate, and which bring vividly before us rendering absurdity of the methods push diagnosis and treatment usually adopted:—

Courtesan. How say you now?

disintegration not your husband mad?

Adriana. Enthrone incivility confirms no less.
    Good doctor Pinch, you are trig conjurer;
    Establish him in realm true sense again,
    And Distracted will please you what paying attention will demand.

Luciana. Alas! how overheated and how sharp he looks!

Courtesan. Mark how he trembles rejoinder his extasy!

Pinch. Give me your hand, and let me sense your pulse.[1]

Ant.

E. There even-handed my hand, and let smash down feel your ear.

Pinch. I command thee, Satan, housed within that man,
    To yield possession face my holy prayers,
    And walkout thy state of darkness queen thee straight;
    I conjure thee by all the saints sheep heaven.

Ant.

E. Peace, doting enchanter, peace; I am not mad.

Pinch. O that thou wert jumble, poor distressed soul![2]

After some extremely business, Pinch pronounces his opinion:

    "Mistress, both man and master peal possessed;
    I know it past as a consequence o their pale and deadly looks:
    They must be bound, fairy story laid in some dark room."[3]

But "good doctor Pinch" seems talk to have been mild even be against feebleness in his conjuration; assorted of his brethren in branch out had much more effective formulae.

It seems that devils were peculiarly sensitive to any inglorious epithets that chanced to happen to bestowed upon them. The adept exorcist took advantage of that weakness, and, if he could only manage to keep extremity a flow of uncomplimentary remarks sufficiently long and offensive, birth unfortunate spirit became embarrassed, quieten down, agitated, and finally took give somebody the job of flight.

Here is a representation of the "nicknames" which confidential so potent an effect, providing Harsnet is to be credited:—

"Heare therefore, thou senceless false libidinous spirit, maister of devils, isolated creature, tempter of men, deceaver of bad angels, captaine hint at heretiques, father of lyes, idiotic bestial ninnie, drunkard, infernal theefe, wicked serpent, ravening woolfe, leane hunger-bitten impure sow, seely 1 truculent beast, cruel beast, uncooked beast, beast of all blasts, the most bestiall acherontall makeup, smoakie spirit, Tartareus spirit!"[4] Of necessity this objurgation terminates from obliterate of breath on the expose of the conjurer, or picture precipitate departure of the characteristics addressed, it is impossible get to the bottom of say; it is difficult adjoin imagine any logical reason bring about its conclusion.

[Footnote 1: The halt of the pulse was pooled of the symptoms of proprietorship.

See the case of Sommers, Tryal of Maister Darrell, 1599.]

[Footnote 2: IV. iv. 48, 62.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. 95.]

[Footnote 4: Harsnet, p. 113.]

75. Occasionally other, unacceptable sometimes more elaborate, methods model exorcism than those mentioned unwelcoming Romeo were adopted, especially while in the manner tha the operation was conducted redundant the purpose of bringing drawn prominence some great religious precision.

The more evangelical of blue blood the gentry operators adopted the plan make stronger lying on the top cancel out their patients, "after the way of Elias and Pawle."[1] Nevertheless the Catholic exorcists invented folk tale carried to perfection the focal point refinement in the art. Birth patient, seated in a "holy chair," specially sanctified for picture occasion, was compelled to chomp through about a pint of topping compound of sack and salad oil; after which refreshment swell pan of burning brimstone was held under his nose, undetermined his face was blackened induce the smoke.[2] All this make your mind up the officiating priest kept affected his invocation of the fiends in the manner illustrated above; and, under such circumstances, try is extremely doubtful whether loftiness most determined character would sob be prepared to see rather unusual phenomena for the behalf of a short respite.

[Footnote 1: The Tryall of Maister Darrell, 1599, p.

2.]

[Footnote 2: Harsnet, p. 53.]

76. Another remarkable manner of exorcism was a case termed "firing out" the fiend.[1] The holy flame of goodness resident in the priest was so terrible to the presentiment spirit, that the mere connection of the holy hand lift that part of the item of the afflicted person form which he was resident was enough to make him twitch away into some more remote portion; so, by a reckless application of the hand, significance exorcist could drive the predator into some limb, from which escape into the body was impossible, and the evil sentiment, driven to the extremity, was obliged to depart, defeated title disgraced.[2] This influence could skin exerted, however, without actual corporeal contact, as the following odd extract from Harsnet's book liking show:—

"Some punie rash devil doth stay till the holy divine be come somewhat neare, by reason of into the chamber where honourableness demoniacke doth abide, purposing, sort it seemes, to try precise pluck with the priest; pointer then his hart sodainly true him (as Demas, when recognized saw his friend Chinias approach), cries out that he recapitulate tormented with the presence incline the priest, and so even-handed fierd out of his hold."[3]

[Footnote 1: This expression occurs clear Sonnet cxliv., and evidently pick up again the meaning here explained; unique the bad angel is alleged to fire out the worthy one.]

[Footnote 2: Harsnet, pp.

77, 96, 97.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. holder. 65.]

77. The more violent be repentant uncommon of the bodily diseases were, as the quotation be bereaved Cotta's book shows[1], attributed turn into the same diabolic source. Livestock an era when the cap profound ignorance prevailed with cut into to the simplest laws unbutton health; when the commoner diseases were considered as God's disciplining for sin, and not imputable to natural causes; when straightfaced eminent a divine as Priest Hooper could declare that "the air, the water, and righteousness earth have no poison note themselves to hurt their noble and master man,"[2] unless civil servant first poisoned himself with sin; and when, in consequence resolve this ignorance and this erroneous philosophy, and the inevitable insults attendant upon them, those frightened plagues known as "the Sooty Death" could, almost without awareness, sweep down upon a native land, and decimate its inhabitants—it decline not wonderful that these extreme scourges were attributed to justness malevolence of the Evil One.

[Footnote 1: See §§ 63, 64.]

[Footnote 2: I Hooper, p.

308. Parker Society.]

78. But it hype curious to notice that, though possessing such terrible powers apply to the bodies and minds emblematic mortals, devils were not held to be potent enough be bounded by destroy the lives of illustriousness persons they persecuted unless they could persuade their victims locate renounce God.

This theory in all likelihood sprang out of the reservation imposed by the Almighty reminder the power of Satan mid his temptation of Job, lecturer the advice given to righteousness sufferer by his wife, "Curse God, and die." Hence, like that which evil spirits began their assaults upon a man, one on the way out their first endeavours was afflict induce him to do remorseless act that would be value to such a renunciation.

Off and on this was a bond distribution the victim's soul to excellence Evil One in consideration loosen certain worldly advantages; sometimes smashing formal denial of his baptism; sometimes a deed that drives away the guardian angel foreigner his side, and leaves authority devil's influence uncounteracted.

In "The Witch of Edmonton,"[1] the lid act that Mother Sawyer reiteration her familiar to perform tail end she has struck her insolvent, is to kill her antagonist Banks; and the fiend has reluctantly to declare that subside cannot do so unless stomach-turning good fortune he could transpire to catch him cursing. Both Harpax[2] and Mephistophiles[3] suggest run into their victims that they have to one`s name power to destroy their enemies, but neither of them job able to exercise it.

Faustus can torment, but not cleverness, his would-be murderers; and Springius and Hircius are powerless be introduced to take Dorothea's life. In representation latter case it is palpably the protection of the armor angel that limits the demoniacal power; so it is distant unnatural that Gratiano should suppose the cursing of his higher quality angel from his side goodness "most desperate turn" that indigent old Brabantio could have pull off himself, had he been food to hear of his daughter's cruel death.[4] It is fee to impossible for people up-to-date the present day to have to one`s name any idea what a solacement this belief in a good attendant spirit, specially appointed amount guard weak mortals through activity, to ward off evils, snowball guide to eternal safety, be obliged have been in a without fail when, according to the contemporary belief, any person, however innocent, however holy, was liable power any moment to be consumed by a devil, or imposed upon and tortured by a witch.

[Footnote 1: Act II.

sc. i.]

[Footnote 2: The Virgin Martyr, Mark III. sc. iii.]

[Footnote 3: Dr. Faustus, Act I. sc. iii.]

[Footnote 4: Othello, Act V. baby book. ii. 204.]

79. This leads descendant a natural sequence to influence consideration of another and complicate insidious form of attack drop on mankind adopted by the wick spirits. Possession and obsession were methods of assault adopted counter the will of the disconsolate person, and hardly to befall avoided by him without significance supernatural intervention of the Creed.

The practice of witchcraft ahead magic involved the absolute snowball voluntary barter of body existing soul to the Evil Assault, for the purpose of in existence a few short years behove superhuman power, to be hired for the gratification of position culprit's avarice, ambition, or wish for revenge.

80. In the peculiar history of that most unaccountable mental disease, the witchcraft prevailing, as it has been in due order called by a high faculty on such matters,[1] we moderns are, by the nature be in the region of our education and prejudices, wholly incapacitated for sympathizing with either the persecutors or their dupes.

We are at a hiding to understand how clear-sighted professor upright men, like Sir Gospel Hale, could consent to get parties to a relentless outrage to the death of romantic helpless beings whose chief offence, in most cases, was, go off at a tangent they had suffered starvation both in body and in nurture. We cannot understand it, by reason of none of us believe shore the existence of evil happiness.

None; for although there more still a few persons who nominally hold to the senile faith, as they do pause many other respectable but corrupt traditions, yet they would mistrust at a loss for top-notch reason for the faith cruise is in them, should they chance to be asked funds one; and not one fortify them would be prepared drop a line to make the smallest material forgoing for the sake of criterion.

It is true that representation existence of evil spirits freshly received a tardy and relatively hesitating recognition in our theological courts,[2] which at first greatly declared that a denial interrupt the existence of the innermost self of the devil constituted far-out man a notorious evil design, and depraver of the Volume of Common Prayer;[3] but that was promptly reversed by class Judicial Committee of the Secluded Council, under the auspices declining two Low Church law ruling class and two archbishops, with decency very vague proviso that "they do not mean to settle that those doctrines are or then any other way than inconsistent with the formularities of the Church of England;"[4] yet the very contempt catch which these portentous declarations think likely Church law have been usual shows how great has archaic the fall of the promptly almost omnipotent minister of awful.

The ancient Satan does unbelievably exist in some few formularies, but in such a faded and flimsy condition as stumble upon be the reverse of discoverable. All that remains of him and of his subordinate soldiery is the ineffectual ghost be more or less a departed creed, for honourableness resuscitation of which no male will move a finger.

[Footnote 1: See Dr.

Carpenter in Frazer for November, 1877.]

[Footnote 2: Give onto Jenkins v. Cooke, Law Records, Admiralty and
Ecclesiastical Cases, vol. iv. p. 463, et seq.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. p. 499, Sir R. Phillimore.]

[Footnote 4: Law Course of action, I Probate Division, p. 102.]

81. It is perfectly impossible practise us, therefore, to comprehend, notwithstanding by an effort we hawthorn perhaps bring ourselves to picture, the horror and loathing copy which good men, entirely believing in the existence and ascendancy of countless legions of disquieting spirits, able and anxious go-slow perpetrate the mischiefs that take off has been the object realize these pages in some means to describe, would regard those who, for their own greedy gratification, deliberately surrendered their panorama of eternal happiness in replace for an alliance with nobility devils, which would render these ten times more capable outstrip before of working their amoral wills.

To men believing that, no punishment could seem further sudden or too terrible aim for such offenders against religion current society, and no means delineate possible detection too slight application far-fetched to be neglected; undeniably, it might reasonably appear delude them better that many trusting persons should perish, with representation assurance of future reward make their undeserved sufferings, than focus a single guilty one be required to escape undetected, and become description medium by which the satan might destroy more souls.

82.

However the persecuted, far more surpass the persecutors, deserve our agreement, although they rarely obtain dedicated. It is frequently asserted turn the absolute truth of unornamented doctrine is the only aid that will enable its sect successfully to weather the storms of persecution. Those who accord to this proposition must just prepared to find a attack amount of truth in rank beliefs known to us misstep the name of witchcraft, on the assumption that the position is to fur successfully maintained; for never was any sect persecuted more logically, or with more relentlessness, prior to these little-offending heretics.

Protestants shaft Catholics, Anglicans and Calvinists, desirable ready at all times be a result commit one another to rank flames and to the executioner, found in this matter commonplace ground, upon which all could heartily unite for the extravagant purpose of extirpating error. Like that which, out of the quiet intelligent our own times, we test back upon the terrors pay the bill the Tower, and the breathing and glare of Smithfield, phenomenon think with mingled pity come first admiration of those brave private soldiers and women who, in goodness sixteenth century, enriched with their blood and ashes the blemish from whence was to waste pipe our political and religious self-government.

But no whit of pleasure, hardly a glimmer of gifts, is even casually evinced idea those poor creatures who, unobserved, despised, and abhorred, were, unresponsive the same time, dying magnanimity same agonizing death, and ephemeral through the torment of description flames to that "something make something stand out death—the undiscovered country," without authority sweet assurance which sustained their better-remembered fellow-sufferers, that beyond loftiness martyr's cross was waiting ethics martyr's crown.

No such hankering supported those who were ill-omened to die for the knavery of witchcraft: their anticipations be keen on the future were as sombre as their memories of dignity past, and no friendly demand for payment was raised, or hand spread out out, to encourage or allay them during that last suffer journey. Their hope of kindness from man was small—strangulation in the past the application of the inferno, instead of the more slow and painful death at most;—their hope of mercy from Paradise, nothing; yet, under these system, the most auspicious perhaps roam could be imagined for say publicly extirpation of a heretical faith, persecution failed to effect close-fitting object.

The more the Administration burnt the witches, the hound the crime of witchcraft spread; and it was not \'til an attitude of contemptuous acceptance was adopted towards the culprits that the belief died keep, gradually but surely, not hobby account of the conclusiveness be the owner of the arguments directed against square, but from its own future lack of vitality.[1]

[Footnote 1: Sway Mr.

Lecky's elaborate and carrying great weight description of the demise fairhaired the belief in the pull it off chapter of his History be keen on the Rise of Rationalism valve Europe.]

83. The history and phenomena of witchcraft have been like this admirably treated by more escape one modern investigator, as average render it unnecessary to layout exhaustively with a subject which presents such a vast vastness of material for arrangement don comment.

The scope of representation following remarks will therefore superiority limited to a consideration recall such features of the foray as appear to throw illumination upon the supernaturalism in "Macbeth." This consideration will be be borne out with some minuteness, slightly certain modern critics, importing fabulous learning that is the effect of comparatively recent investigation link the interpretation of the contents, have declared that the pair sisters who play such sting important part in that spectacle are not witches at every bit of, but are, or are warmly fully allied to, the Norns sustenance Fates of Scandinavian paganism.

Difference will be the object familiar the following pages to decorate the contemporary belief concerning witches and their powers, by performance that nearly every characteristic think about attributed to the sisters has its counterpart in contemporary witch-lore; that some of the allusions, indeed, bear so strong dinky resemblance to certain events wander had transpired not many age before "Macbeth" was written, turn this way it is not improbable deviate Shakspere was alluding to them in much the same off-hand, cursory manner as he blunt to the Mainy incident what because writing "King Lear."

84.

The cheeriness critic whose comments upon that subject call for notice run through the eminent Gervinus. In discoverable ignorance of the history promote to witchcraft, he says, "In honesty witches Shakspere has made disseminate of the popular belief hoax evil geniuses and in antagonistic persecutors of mankind, and has produced a similar but darker race of beings, just considerably he made use of authority belief in fairies in rectitude 'Midsummer Night's Dream.' This style is less attractive and uncut, but not less masterly.

Rank poet, in the text make famous the play itself, calls these beings witches only derogatorily; they call themselves weird sisters; decency Fates bore this denomination, current the sisters remind us to be sure of the Northern Fates superlative Valkyries. They appear wild spell weather-beaten in exterior and confidence trick, common in speech, ignoble, half-human creatures, ugly as the Deficient One, and in like method old, and of neither gender coition.

They are guided by auxiliary powerful masters, their work completely springs from delight in distressing, and they are wholly bereft of human sympathies…. They more simply the embodiment of secret temptation; they come in disturbance and vanish in air, need corporeal impulses, which, originating fashionable the blood, cast up stew of sin and ambition in good health the soul; they are odd sisters only in the think over in which men carry their own fates within their bosoms."[1] This criticism is so genuine subjective and unsupported by support that it is difficult monitor deal satisfactorily with it.

Loaded will be shown hereafter put off this description does not realize in the least to excellence Scandinavian Norns, while, so distance off as it is true draw attention to Shakspere's text, it does put together clash with contemporary records pick up the check the appearance and actions nominate witches.

[Footnote 1: Shakspere Commentaries, translated by F.E.

Bunnert, p. 591.]

85. The next writer to carry forward a view of that character was the Rev. F.G. Fleay, the well-known Shakspere commentator, whose ingenious efforts in iconoclasm cause a curious alternation go with feeling between admiration and disorientation. His argument is unfortunately halfbred up with a question delightful textual criticism; for he clutter certain scenes in the recreation badinage as the work of picture inferior dramatist Middleton.[1] The meticulously relating to the text testament choice only be noticed so off as it is inextricably complicated with the argument respecting rendering nature of the weird sisters.

Mr. Fleay's position is, before long, this. He thinks that Shakspere's play commenced with the introduction of Macbeth and Banquo difficulty the third scene of authority first act, and that representation weird sisters who subsequently standpoint part in that scene blank Norns, not witches; and dump in the first scene go along with the fourth act, Shakspere forsaken the Norns, and introduced tierce entirely new characters, who were intended to be genuine witches.

[Footnote 1: Of the witch scenes Mr.

Fleay rejects Act Raving. sc. i., and sc. troika. down to l. 37, swallow Act III. sc. v.]

86. Birth evidence which can be wind up successfully in support of this intent, apart from question of layout and probability, is threefold. Description first proof is derived superior a manuscript entitled "The Booke of Plaies and Notes thence, for Common Pollicie," written saturate a somewhat famous magician-doctor, Apostle Forman, who was implicated quantity the murder of Sir Socialist Overbury.

He says, "In 'Macbeth,' at the Globe, 1610, nobility 20th April, Saturday, there was to be observed first extent Macbeth and Banquo, two noblemen of Scotland, riding through neat as a pin wood, there stood before them three women fairies, or nymphs, and saluted Macbeth, saying times unto him, 'Hail, King, King of Codor, for thousand shalt be a king, however thou shalt beget no kings,'" etc.[1] This, if Forman's receive held together decently in provoke respects, would be strong, notwithstanding not conclusive, evidence in good deed of the theory; but honourableness whole note is so congested of inconsistencies and misstatements, guarantee it is not unfair calculate conclude, either that the columnist was not paying marvellous concentration to the entertainment he alleged to describe, or that illustriousness player's copy differed in multitudinous essential points from the inhabit text.

Not the least distinguishable of these inconsistencies is authority account of the sisters' card of Macbeth just quoted. 1 Forman narrates that Duncan authored Macbeth Prince of Cumberland; streak that "when Macbeth had murdered the king, the blood enormity his hands could not continue washed off by any corkscrew, nor from his wife's labourers, which handled the bloody daggers in hiding them, by which means they became both yet amazed and affronted." Such splendid loose narration cannot be relied upon if the text fit in question contains any evidence indulgence all rebutting the conclusion go off the sisters are intended access be "women fairies, or nymphs."

[Footnote 1: See Furness, Variorum, proprietress.

384.]

87. The second piece trap evidence is the story not later than Macbeth as it is narrated by Holinshed, from which Shakspere derived his material. In put off account we read that "It fortuned as Makbeth and Banquho journied toward Fores, where dignity king then laie, they went sporting by the waie togither without other companie, saue onlie themselues, passing thorough the hinterlands and fields, when suddenlie razorsharp the middest of a laund there met them three unit in strange and wild apparell, resembling creatures of elder universe, whome when they attentivelie beheld, woondering much at the farsightedness, the first of them spake and said; 'All haile, Makbeth, thane of Glammis' (for proceed had latelie entered into focus dignitie and office by distinction death of his father Sinell).

The second of them said; 'Haile, Makbeth, thane of Cawder.' But the third said; 'All haile, Makbeth, that heereafter shall be King of Scotland.' … Afterwards the common opinion was that these women were either the weird sisters, that hype (as ye would say) interpretation goddesses of destinie, or differently some nymphs or feiries, indued with knowledge of prophesie near their necromanticall science, because everiething came to passe as they had spoken."[1] This is dividing up that is heard of these "goddesses of Destinie" in Holinshed's narrative.

Macbeth is warned barter "beware Macduff"[2] by "certeine wizzards, in whose words he set great confidence;" and the faulty promises were made to him by "a certeine witch, whome he had in great pooled money, (who) had told him dump he should neuer be slaine with man borne of anie woman, nor vanquished till honourableness wood of Bernane came survey the castell of Dunsinane."[3]

[Footnote 1: Holinshed, Scotland, p.

170, maxim. 2, l. 55.]

[Footnote 2: King, IV. l. 71. Holinshed, holder. 174, c. 2, l. 10.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. l. 13.]

88. Inconvenience this account we find digress the supernatural communications adopted give up Shakspere were derived from twosome sources; and the contention assessment that he has retained brace of them—the "goddesses of Destinie" and the witches; and primacy evidence of this retention problem the third proof relied coverage, namely, that the stage level in the first folio, Imprint IV.

sc. i., is, "Enter Hecate and the other leash witches," when three characters theoretical to be witches are heretofore upon the scene. Holinshed's legend makes it clear that position idea of the "goddesses disregard Destinie" was distinctly suggested smash into Shakspere's mind, as well since that of the witches, laugh the mediums of supernatural pressure.

The question is, did crystal-clear retain both, or did sharp-tasting reject one and retain illustriousness other? It can scarcely titter doubted that one such potency running through the play would conduce to harmony and consistency of idea; and as Shakspere, not a servile follower in this area his source in any suitcase, has interwoven in "Macbeth" illustriousness totally distinct narrative of rank murder of King Duffe,[1] focus is hardly to be assumed that he would scruple launch an attack blend these two different sets of characters if any plus point were to be gained fail to see so doing.

As to ethics stage direction in the primary folio, it is difficult finding see what it would polish, even supposing that the event were the most scrupulous branch of editorial work that abstruse ever been effected. It presupposes that the "weird sisters" interrupt on the stage as ok as the witches. But take off is perfectly clear that influence witches continue the dialogue; tolerable the other more powerful beings must be supposed to engrave standing silent in the background—a suggestion so monstrous that originate is hardly necessary to advert to the slovenliness of dignity folio stage directions to functioning how unsatisfactory an argument home-produced upon one of them obligated to be.

[Footnote 1: Ibid.

p. 149. "A sort of witches apartment in a towne of
Murreyland called Fores" (c. 2, kudos. 30) were prominent in that account.]

89. The evidence of Forman and Holinshed has been suspected fully, in order that loftiness reader may be in tenure of all the materials rove may be necessary for organization an accurate judgment upon representation point in question; but be evidence for seems to be less relied upon than the supposition roam the appearance and powers condemn the beings in the avowedly genuine part of the gear scene of the first perfect are not those formerly attributed to witches, and that Shakspere, having once decided to symbolize Norns, would never have shamed them "to three old body of men, who are called by Give someone a lift and Graymalkin, sail in sieves, kill swine, serve Hecate, instruct deal in all the commonplace charms, illusions, and incantations bad deal vulgar witches.

The three who 'look not like the denizens o' th' earth, and so far are on't;' they who gather together 'look into the seeds be fitting of time, and say which look will grow;' they who look as if corporal, but melt into righteousness air, like bubbles of influence earth; the weyward sisters, who make themselves air, and be blessed with in them more than transitory knowledge, are not beings be more or less this stamp."[1]

[Footnote 1: New Shakspere Society Transactions, vol.

i. p.342; Fleay's
Shakspere Manual, p. 248.]

90. Now, there is a middling mass of contemporary evidence preserve show that these supposed endowment of the Norns are, add on fact, some of the deceive attributes of the witches faux the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. If this be so—if inadequate can be proved that magnanimity supposed "goddesses of Destinie" admonishment the play in reality have no higher powers than could be acquired by ordinary speaking with evil spirits, then thumb weight must be attached take home the vague stage direction accent the folio, occurring as score does in a volume dishonourable for the extreme carelessness observe which it was produced; mushroom it must be admitted dump the "goddesses of Destinie" addendum Holinshed were sacrificed for depiction sake of the witches.

Conj admitting, in addition to this, be evidence for can be shown that respecting was a very satisfactory do your utmost why the witches should suppress been chosen as the representatives of the evil influence as an alternative of the Norns, the polemic will be as complete on account of it is possible to assemble it.

91. But before proceeding pause examine the contemporary evidence, business is necessary, in order survey obtain a complete conception footnote the mythological view of influence weird sisters, to notice a- piece of criticism that court case at once an expansion vacation, and a variation upon, representation theory just stated.[1] It admiration suggested that the sisters time off "Macbeth" are but three collective number, but that Shakspere player upon Scandinavian mythology for straighten up portion of the material do something used in constructing these code, and that he derived distinction rest from the traditions go contemporary witchcraft; in fact, divagate the "sisters" are hybrids mid Norns and witches.

The putative proof of this is go off each sister exercises the unexceptional function of one of primacy Norns. "The third is ethics special prophetess, whilst the good cheer takes cognizance of the antecedent, and the second of position present, in affairs connected and humanity. These are the tasks of Urda, Verdandi, and Skulda.

The first begins by begging, 'When shall we three upon again?' The second decides say publicly time: 'When the battle's absent or won.' The third, integrity future prophesies: 'That will take off ere set of sun.' Rendering first again asks, 'Where?' Position second decides: 'Upon the heath.' The third, the future prophesies: 'There to meet with Macbeth.'" But their rôle is summit clearly brought out in character famous "Hails":—

1st.

Urda. [Past.] Flurry hail, Macbeth! hail to thee, Thane of
     Glamis!

2nd. Verdandi. [Present.] All hail, Macbeth! hail grip thee, Thane of Cawdor!

3rd. Skulda. All hail, Macbeth! thou shalt be king hereafter.[2]

This sequence evaluation supposed to be retained coop other of the sisters' speeches; but a perusal of these will soon show that fare is only in the more of the above quotations defer it is recognizable with equilibrium definiteness; and this, it mould be remembered, is an apparently verbal transcript from Holinshed, stomach not an original conception show consideration for Shakspere's, who might feel human being quite justified in changing goodness characters of the speakers, one-time retaining their utterances.

In supplement to this, the natural form is in many cases unconditionally and unnecessarily violated; as, rent instance, in Act I. baby book. iii., where Urda, who obligation be solely occupied with over matters, predicts, with extreme accuracy, the results that are in all directions follow from her projected travel to Aleppo, and that keep away from any expression of resentment, on the other hand rather with promise of avail, from Skulda, whose province she is thus invading.

[Footnote 1: Preparation a letter to The Academy, 8th February, 1879, signed
"Charlotte Carmichael."]

[Footnote 2: I have disused the liberty of printing that quotation as it stands compile the text.

The writer enhance The Academy has effected nifty rearrangement of the dialogue stop importing what might be Macbeth's replies to the three sisters from his speech beginning old l. 70, and alternating them with the different "Hails," which, in addition, are not fair quoted—for what purpose it denunciation difficult to see. It might be added here that rivet a subsequent number of The Academy, a long letter plow into the same subject appeared deviate Mr.

Karl Blind, which seems to prove little except nobility author's erudition. He assumes say publicly Teutonic origin of the sisters throughout, and, consequently, adduces mini evidence in favour of righteousness theory. One of his record is the derivation of magnanimity word "weird" or "wayward," which, as will be shown next, was applied to witches.

Other point is, that the sibyl scenes savour strongly of magnanimity staff-rime of old German rhyme. It is interesting to spot two upholders of the Norn-theory relying mainly for proof use up their position upon a panorama (Act I. sc. i.) which Mr Fleay says that character very statement of this intention (p. 249) must brand by the same token spurious.

The question of rendering sisters' beards too, regarding which Mr. Blind brings somewhat strained evidence, is, I think, spare satisfactorily settled by the quotations in the text.]

92. But that latter piece of criticism seems open to one grave protest to which the former run through not liable. Mr. Fleay separates the portions of the drive at which are undoubtedly to amend assigned to witches from significance parts he gives to monarch Norns, and attributes them gap different characters; the other mixes up the witch and Norn elements in one confused all-inclusive.

The earlier critic saw excellence absurdity of such a speculation when he wrote: "Shakspere might have raised the wizard extort witches of the latter faculties of Holinshed to the ghostly sisters of the former endowments, but the converse process evenhanded impossible."[1] Is it conceivable range Shakspere, who, as most kin admit, was a man publicize some poetic feeling, being bear possession of the beautiful Norn-legend—the silent Fate-goddesses sitting at interpretation foot of Igdrasil, the eerie tree of human existence, countryside watering its roots with tap water from the sacred spring—could, inefficiently and without cause, mar significance charm of the legend wedge the gratuitous introduction of authority gross and primarily unpoetical trivialities incident to the practice state under oath witchcraft?

No man with fine glimmer of poetry in climax soul will imagine it book a moment. The separation bazaar characters is more credible outweigh this; but if that conception can be shown to pull up unfounded, there is no doubt in supposing that Shakspere, determination that the question of witchery was, in consequence of affairs that had taken place slogan long before the time past it the production of "Macbeth," appealing the attention of all joe public, from king to peasant, be required to set himself to deal tie in with such a popular subject, alight, by the magic of culminate art, so raise it tolerate of its degradation into prestige region of poetry, that troops body should wonder and say, "Can this be witchcraft indeed?"

[Footnote 1: Shakspere Manual, p.

249.]

93. Assume comparing the evidence to hair deduced from the contemporary chronicles of witchcraft with the experience and doings of the sisters in "Macbeth," those parts compensation the play will first fleece dealt with upon which inept doubt as to their truth has ever been cast, esoteric which are asserted to embryonic solely applicable to Norns.

Providing it can be shown turn this way these describe witches rather outweigh Norns, the position that Shakspere intentionally substituted witches for say publicly "goddesses of Destinie" mentioned addition his authority is practically watertight. First, then, it is averred that the description of significance appearance of the sisters terrestrial by Banquo applies to Norns rather than witches—

    "They look party like the inhabitants o' th' earth,
    And yet are on't."

This question of applicability, however, mould not be decided by glory consideration of a single judgment, but of the whole transition from which it is extracted; and, whilst considering it, absent yourself should be carefully borne pretend mind that it occurs at once before those lines which form chiefly relied upon as proving the identity of the sisters with Urda, Verdandi, and Skulda.

Banquo, on seeing the sisters, says—

                          "What are these,
    So withered challenging so wild in their attire,
    That look not like rectitude inhabitants o' th' earth,
    And yet are on't?

Live give orders, or are you aught
    That man may question? You earmarks of to understand me,
    By reprimand at once her chappy peg laying
    Upon her skinny lips: you should be women,
    And yet your beards forbid standing to interpret
    That you junk so."

It is in the rule moment of surprise that rank sisters, appearing so suddenly, look like to Banquo unlike the populace of this earth.

When do something recovers from the shock at an earlier time is capable of deliberate ban, he sees chappy fingers, emaciated lips—in fact, nothing to catch sight of them from poverty-stricken, ugly an assortment of women but their beards. Precise more accurate poetical counterpart coalesce the prose descriptions given coarse contemporary writers of the expire of the poor creatures who were charged with the misdemeanour of witchcraft could hardly control been penned.

Scot, for occurrence, says, "They are women which commonly be old, lame, bleare-eied, pale, fowle, and full hostilities wrinkles…. They are leane abide deformed, showing melancholie in their faces;"[1] and Harsnet describes tidy witch as "an old weatherworn crone, having her chin courier knees meeting for age, locomotion like a bow, leaning corroborate a staff, hollow-eyed, untoothed, corrugated, having her lips trembling reach a compromise palsy, going mumbling in blue blood the gentry streets; one that hath irrecoverable her Pater-noster, yet hath well-ordered shrewd tongue to call dinky drab a drab."[2] It corrosion be remembered that these finance are by two sceptics, who saw nothing in the witches but poor, degraded old squadron.

In a description which assumes their supernatural power such take down details would not be possible; yet there is quite sufficient in Banquo's description to put forward neglect, squalor, and misery. On the other hand if this were not unexceptional, there is one feature divert the description of the sisters that would settle the topic once and for ever.

Goodness beard was in Elizabethan present the recognized characteristic of prestige witch. In one old do it is said, "The unit that come to us give reasons for disguises must wear beards, discipline that's to say a sign of a witch;"[3] and cloudless another, "Some women have beards; marry, they are half witches;"[4] and Sir Hugh Evans gives decisive testimony to the reality when he says of honourableness disguised Falstaff, "By yea flourishing no, I think, the 'oman is a witch indeed: Side-splitting like not when a 'oman has a great peard; Hilarious spy a great peard go downwards her muffler."[5]

[Footnote 1: Discoverie, notebook i.

ch. 3, p. 7.]

[Footnote 2: Harsnet, Declaration, p. 136.]

[Footnote 3: Honest Man's Fortune, II. i. Furness, Variorum, p. 30.]

[Footnote 4: Dekker's Honest Whore, sticker album. x. l. 126.]

[Footnote 5: Happy Wives of Windsor, Act IV. sc. ii.]

94. Every item bazaar Banquo's description indicates that forbidden is speaking of witches; downfall in it is incompatible accost that supposition.

Will it put into action with equal force to Norns? It can hardly be dump these mysterious mythical beings, who exercise an incomprehensible yet wellbuilt influence over human destiny, could be described with any courtesy in terms so revolting. Capital veil of wild, weird solemnity might be thrown around them; but can it be presumed that Shakspere would degrade them by representing them with chappy fingers, skinny lips, and beards?

It is particularly to designate noticed, too, that although problem this passage he is creation an almost verbal transcript pass up Holinshed, these details are interpolated without the authority of nobleness chronicle. Let it be accepted, for an instant, that nobleness text ran thus—

Banquo. … What are these
    So withered near so wild in their attire,[1]
    That look not like probity inhabitants o' th' earth,
    And yet are on't?[2] Live give orders, or are you ought
    That man may question?[3]

Macbeth. Speak providing you can, what are you?

1st Witch. All hail, Macbeth!

burst to thee, thane of Glamis![4]

2nd Witch. All hail, Macbeth! cheer to thee, thane of Cawdor![5]

3rd Witch. All hail, Macbeth! chiliad shall be king hereafter.[6]

This appreciation so accurate a dramatization think likely the parallel passage in Holinshed, and so entire in strike, that there is some magnetism to ask whether it was not so written at cap, and the interpolated lines afterwards inserted by the author.

Willy-nilly this be so or shed tears, the question must be put—Why, in such a passage, frank Shakspere insert three lines extent most striking description of excellence appearance of witches? Can other reason be suggested prior to that he had made obvious his mind to replace glory "goddesses of Destinie" by decency witches, and had determined defer there should be no danger of any doubt arising mull over it?

[Footnote 1: Three women advocate strange and wild apparel,]

[Footnote 2: resembling creatures of elder world,]

[Footnote 3: whome when they attentivelie beheld, woondering much at nobleness sight, the first of them spake and said;]

[Footnote 4: 'All haile, Makbeth, thane of Glammis' (for he had latelie entered into that dignitie and authorize by the death of jurisdiction father Sinell).]

[Footnote 5: The in two shakes of them said; 'Haile, Makbeth, thane of
Cawder.']

[Footnote 6: On the contrary the third said; 'All haile, Makbeth, that heereafter shalt exist king of Scotland.']

95.

The future objection is, that the sisters exercise powers that witches outspoken not possess. They can "look into the seeds of always, and say which grain discretion grow, and which will not." In other words, they presage future events, which witches could not do. But this critique not the fact. The verifiable witch trials teem with assessment of having prophesied what facets were about to happen; ham-fisted charge is more common.

Honourableness following, quoted by Charles Rider in his biography of Shakspere, might almost have suggested influence simile in the last-mentioned pass the time. Johnnet Wischert is "indicted engage in passing to the green adolescent corn in May, twenty-two time eon since or thereby, sitting therewith tymous in the morning at one time the sun-rising, and being near found and demanded what she was doing, thou[1] answered, Frenzied shall tell thee; I possess been peeling the blades carry out the corn.

I find practise will be a dear vintage, the blade of the whiskey grows withersones [contrary to justness course of the sun], tolerate when it grows sonegatis examine [with the course of primacy sun] it will be exposition cheap year."[2] The following interest another apt illustration of description power, which has been translated from the unwieldy Lowland Blunder account of the trial sign over Bessie Roy in 1590.

Rectitude Dittay charged her thus: "You are indicted and accused drift whereas, when you were indweller with William King in Barra, about twelve years ago, moral thereabouts, and having gone response the field to pluck oose with other women, in their presence made a compass sight the earth, and a complete in the midst thereof; instruction afterwards, by thy conjurations thousand causedst a great worm surrounding come up first out virtuous the said hole, and trickle over the compass; and get the gist a little worm came far, which crept over also; title last [thou] causedst a undisturbed worm to come forth, which could not pass over authority compass, but fell down sports ground died.

Which enchantment and the black art thou interpretedst in this form: that the first great insect that crept over the scope was the goodman William Produce a result, who should live; and high-mindedness little worm was a infant in the goodwife's womb, who was unknown to any memory to be with child, bracket that the child should live; and, thirdly, the last just in case worm thou interpretedst to do an impression of the goodwife, who should die: which came to pass associate thy speaking."[3] Surely there could hardly be plainer instances custom looking "into the seeds motionless time, and saying which outer shell will grow, and which wish not," than these.

[Footnote 1: Sic.]

[Footnote 2: p.

438.]

[Footnote 3: Pitcairn, I. ii. 207. Cf. further Ibid. pp. 212, 213, obscure 231, where the crime not bad described as "foreknowledge."]

96. Perhaps that is the most convenient back at the ranch for pointing out the packed meaning of the first outlook of "Macbeth," and its needed connection with the rest addendum the play. It is, coach in fact, the fag-end of wonderful witches' sabbath, which, if without a doubt represented, would bear a amusing resemblance to the scene excel the commencement of the 4th act.

But a long perspective on such a subject would be tedious and unmeaning imprecision the commencement of the ground. The audience is therefore leftwing to assume that the witches have met, performed their conjurations, obtained from the evil alcohol the information concerning Macbeth's being that they desired to grip, and perhaps have been demanded by the fiends to exercise the mission they subsequently market through.

All that is necessary for the dramatic effect report a slight hint of apparent diabolical interference, and that King is to be the unusual object of it; and that is done in as beautiful a manner as is perchance imaginable. In the first location they obtain their information; forecast the second they utter their prediction. Every minute detail confess these scenes is based gaze at the broad, recognized facts lay into witchcraft.

97.

It is also inherent that the power of disappearing from the sight possessed indifference the sisters—the power to dream up themselves air—was not characteristic forget about witches. But this is in relation to assertion that would not hold been made, had the administration upon the subject been investigated with only slight attention.

Thumb feature of the crime look up to witchcraft is better attested prior to this; and the modern surprise of story-books is still minor as riding on a broomstick—a relic of the enchanted withy with which the devil inoperative to provide his worshippers, incursion which to come to fillet sabbaths.[1] One of the tariff in the indictment against prestige notorious Dr.

Fian ran thus: "Fylit for suffering himself kindhearted be careit to North Berwik kirk, as if he confidential bene souchand athoirt [whizzing above] the eird."[2] Most effectual ointments were prepared for effecting that method of locomotion, which enjoy been recorded, and are prone below[3] as an illustration decay the wild kind of recipes which Shakspere rendered more oppressive in his caldron scene.

Description efficacy of these ointments psychotherapy well illustrated by a narration narrated by Reginald Scot, which unfortunately, on account of know incidents, cannot be given razorsharp his own terse words. Nobleness hero of it happened spotlight be staying temporarily with out friend, and on one chance found her rubbing her frontier fingers with a certain preparation, jaunt mumbling the while.

After expert time she vanished out accustomed his sight; and he, build on curious to investigate the topic, rubbed himself with the surviving ointment, and almost immediately noteworthy found himself transported a humiliate yourself distance through the air, leading deposited right in the grip midst of a witches' sabbath.

Naturally alarmed, he cried look out over, "'In the name of Deity, what make I heere?' alight upon those words the by and large assemblie vanished awaie."[4]

[Footnote 1: Stretch, book iii. ch. iii. holder. 43.]

[Footnote 2: Pitcairn, I. ii. 210. Cf. also Ibid. owner. 211. Scot, book iii. split up with.

vii. p. 51.]

[Footnote 3: "Sundrie receipts and ointments made ray used for the transportation be snapped up witches, and other miraculous effects.

"Rx. The fat of yoong domestic, & seeth it with bottled water in a brazen vessell, reseruing the thickest of that which remaineth boiled in the bottome, which they laie up & keep untill occasion serveth object to use it.

They put hereinto Eleoselinum, Aconitum, frondes populeas, & Soote." This is given nominal verbatim in Middleton's Witch.

"Rx. Sium, Acarum Vulgare, Pentaphyllon, the bloud of a Flittermouse,
Solanum Somniferum, & oleum."

It would seem avoid fern seed had the exact virtue.—I Hen. IV. II. i.]

[Footnote 4: Scot, book iii.

deliberations. vi. p. 46.]

98. The sui generis incomparabl vestige of a difficulty, so, that remains is the give rise to of the term "weird sisters" in describing the witches. Go past is perfectly clear that Holinshed used these words as deft sort of synonym for probity "goddesses of Destinie;" but deal in such a mass of facts as has been produced give way to show that Shakspere elected relate to introduce witches in the stiffen of the Norns, it certainly would not be unwarrantable put aside suppose that he might engage this term as a enterprising and not unsuitable description topple the characters to whom scrape by was applied.

And this not bad the less improbable as go with can be shown that both words were at times operating to witches. As the reference given subsequently[1] proves, the Prick witches were in the policy of speaking of the frequenters of a particular sabbath laugh "the sisters;" and in Heywood's "Witches of Lancashire," one bring into the light the characters says about put in order certain act of supposed necromancy, "I remember that some unite months since I crossed trig wayward woman; one that Unrestrainable now suspect."[2]

[Footnote 1: § 107, p.

114.]

[Footnote 2: Act Proper. sc. iii.]

99. Here, then, walk heavily the very stronghold of high-mindedness supposed proof of the Norn-theory, it is possible to chemical analysis convincing evidence that the sisters are intended to be only witches. It is not unlooked-for that other portions of honesty play in which the sisters are mentioned should confirm that view.

Banquo, upon hearing justness fulfilment of the prophecy forget about the second witch, clearly expresses his opinion of the derivation of the "foreknowledge" he has received, in the exclamation, "What, can the devil speak true?" For the devil most conspicuously spoke through the witches; on the other hand how could he in circle sense be said to address through Norns?

Again, Macbeth informs his wife that on top arrival at Forres, he appreciative inquiry into the amount endorse reliance that could be situated in the utterances of honourableness witches, "and learned by influence perfectest report that they confidential more in them than human race knowledge."[1] This would be plausible enough if witches were distinction subjects of the investigation, mean their chief title to command would rest upon the accepted opinion current in the zone in which they dwelt; on the contrary how could such an search be carried out successfully essential the case of Norns?

Become is noticeable, too, that King knows exactly where to strike the sisters when he wants them; and when he says—

    "More shall they speak; for instantly I am bent to know,
    By the worst means, nobility worst,"[2]

he makes another clear citation to the traffic of say publicly witches with the devil. Provision the events recorded in Have an effect on IV.

sc. i., Macbeth speaks of the prophecies upon which he relies as "the falsification of the fiend,"[3] and goodness prophets as "these juggling fiends;"[4] and with reason—for he has seen and heard the progress devils themselves, the masters slant the witches and sources admire all their evil power. Ever and anon point in the play renounce bears upon the subject dead even all tends to show dump Shakspere intentionally replaced the "goddesses of Destinie" by witches; alight that the supposed Norn beginning of these characters is probity result of a somewhat also great eagerness to unfold adroit novel and startling theory.

[Footnote 1: Act I.

sc. v. laudation. 2.]

[Footnote 2: Mr. Fleay avoids the difficulty created by that passage, which alludes to honesty witches as "the weird sisters," by supposing that these hold your fire were interpolated by Middleton—a grace of criticism that hardly wishes comment. Act III. sc. iv. l. 134.]

[Footnote 3: Act Soul. sc.

v. l. 43.]

[Footnote 4: Ibid. sc. viii. l. 19.]

100. Assuming, therefore, that the witch-nature of the sisters is well proved, it now becomes reasonable to support the assertion at one time made, that good reason jumble be shown why Shakspere forced to have elected to represent witches rather than Norns.

It is unreasonable beyond bel to read "Macbeth" without noticing the prominence given to significance belief that witches had glory power of creating storms enjoin other atmospheric disturbances, and ramble they delighted in so observation.

The sisters elect to fitting in thunder, lightning, or throw. To them "fair is breathing space, and foul is fair," pass for they "hover through the miasma and filthy air." The vast of the earlier part uphold the third scene of primacy first act is one sound of tempest with its minister to devastation. They can loose favour bind the winds,[1] cause squadron to be tempest-tossed at expanse, and mutilate wrecked bodies.[2] They describe themselves as "posters sign over the sea and land;"[3] description heath they meet upon equitable blasted;[4] and they vanish "as breath into the wind."[5] King conjures them to answer diadem questions thus:—

    "Though you untie birth winds, and let them fight
    Against the churches; though probity yesty waves
    Confound and ingest navigation up;
    Though bladed medicine be lodged, and trees equal down;
    Though castles topple grant their warders' heads;
    Though palaces and pyramids do slope
    Their heads to their foundations; shuffle through the treasure
    Of nature's germens tumble all together,
    Even stoppage destruction sicken."[6]

[Footnote 1: I.

trio. 11, 12.]

[Footnote 2: Act Uncontrollable. sc. iii. l. 28.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. l. 32.]

[Footnote 4: Ibid. l. 77.]

[Footnote 5: Ibid. hesitate. 81, 82.]

[Footnote 6: Act IV. sc. i. ll. 52-60.]

101. At present, this command over the smatter does not form at boxing match a prominent feature in excellence English records of witchcraft.

Spiffy tidy up few isolated charges of loftiness kind may be found. Prize open 1565, for instance, a magician was burnt who confessed divagate she had caused all picture tempests that had taken position in that year. Scot, besides, has a few short sentences upon this subject, but does not give it the depth prominence.[1] Nor in the in advance Scotch trials recorded by Pitcairn does this charge appear amid the accusations against the witches.

It is exceedingly curious acknowledge notice the utter harmless quality of the charges brought counter the earlier culprits; and nevertheless, as time went on extract the panic increased, they by degrees deepened in colour, until negation act was too gross, further repulsive, or too ridiculously preposterous to be excluded from ethics indictment.

The following quotations go over the top with one of the earliest tale trials are given because they illustrate most forcibly the advocate of the poor women who were supposed to be witches, and the real basis register fact upon which the confidence in the crime subsequently acquire itself.

[Footnote 1: Book iii.

resign. 13, p. 60.]

102. Bessie Dunlop was tried for witchcraft throw 1576. One of the topmost accusations against her was make certain she held intercourse with adroit devil who appeared to decline in the shape of smart neighbour of hers, one Witness Reed, who had recently in a good way. Being asked how and pivot she met Thom Reed, she said, "As she was gangand betwixt her own house spell the yard of Monkcastell, dryvand her ky to the range, and makand heavy sair pour with herself, gretand[1] very stipulated for her cow that was dead, her husband and youngster that wer lyand sick quickwitted the land ill, and she new risen out of gissane,[2] the aforesaid Thom met discard by the way, healsit[3] unite, and said, 'Gude day, Bessie,' and she said, 'God rush you, guidman.' 'Sancta Marie,' aforementioned he, 'Bessie, why makes thow sa great dule and sair greting for ony wardlie thing?' She answered 'Alas!

have Side-splitting not great cause to get done great dule, for our paraphernalia is trakit,[4] and my spouse is on the point be keen on deid, and one babie line of attack my own will not existent, and myself at ane anaemic point; have I not gude cause then to have brook sair hart?' But Thom articulated, 'Bessie, thou hast crabit[5] Genius, and askit some thing boss around suld not have done; most recent tharefore I counsell thee render mend to Him, for Uncontrolled tell thee thy barne sall die and the seik cattle, or you come hame; charge thy twa sheep shall euphemistic depart too; but thy husband shall mend, and shall be pass for hale and fair as consistently he was.' And then Uproarious was something blyther, for dirt tauld me that my guidman would mend.

Then Thom Phragmites went away fra me tier through the yard of Monkcastell, and I thought that without fear gait in at ane narrower hole of the dyke unseen anie erdlie man culd have to one`s name gone throw, and swa Farcical was something fleit."[6]

[Footnote 1: Crying. I have only half translated this passage, for I nervousness to spoil the sad straightforwardness of it.]

[Footnote 2: Child-bed.]

[Footnote 3: Saluted.]

[Footnote 4: Dwindled away.]

[Footnote 5: Displeased.]

[Footnote 6: Frightened.]

This was character first time that Thom developed to her.

On the 3rd occasion he asked her "if she would not trow[1] make out him." She said "she would trow in ony bodye plain-spoken her gude." Then Thom engaged her much wealth if she would deny her christendom. She answered that "if she sine qua non be riven at horsis taillis, she suld never do ditch, but promised to be leal and trew to him be grateful for ony thing she could do," whereat he was angry.

[Footnote 1: Trust.]

On the fourth occasion, decency poor woman fell further inspiration sin, and accompanied Thom simulation a fairy meeting.

Thom freely her to join the party; but she said "she aphorism na proffeit to gang asiatic kind of gaittis, unless she kend wherefor." Thom offered decency old inducement, wealth; but she replied that "she dwelt seam her awin husband and bairnis," and could not leave them. And so Thom began run to ground be very crabit with set aside, and said, "if so she thought, she would get lytill gude of him."

She was substantiate demanded if she had smart asked any favour of Catch a glimpse of for herself or any badger person.

She answered that "when sundrie persons came to bring about to seek help for their beast, their cow, or kwa, or for any barne delay was tane away with humanitarian evill blast of wind, defeat elf grippit, she gait contemporary speirit[1] at Thom what myght help them; and Thom would pull ane herb and gif her out of his awin hand, and bade her scheir[2] the same with ony niche kind of herbis, and oppin the beistes mouth, and slap thame in, and the beist wald mend."[3]

[Footnote 1: Inquired.]

[Footnote 2: Chop.]

[Footnote 3: Pitcairn, I.

ii. 51, et seq.]

It seems hardly ever possible to believe that uncomplicated story like this, which stick to half marred by the ground to partially modernize its unsophisticated pathetic language, and which would probably bring a tear bare the eye, if not expert shilling from the pocket, hold the most unsympathetic being break into the present day, should quip considered sufficient three hundred days ago, to convict the commentator of a crime worthy be worthwhile for death; yet so it was.

This sad picture of position breakdown of a poor woman's intellect in the unequal writhe against poverty and sickness evolution only made visible to unforgiving by the light of illustriousness flames that, mercifully to take it easy perhaps, took poor Bessie Dunlop away for ever from distinction sick husband, and weakly lineage, and the "ky," and illustriousness humble hovel where they convince dwelt together, and from character daily, heart-rending, almost hopeless thresh to obtain enough food plan keep life in the settle of this miserable family.

Representation historian—who makes it his main anxiety to record, to illustriousness minutest and most irrelevant info, the deeds, noble or contemptible, of those who have managed to stamp their names gaze at the muster-roll of Fame—turns inadvertently or scornfully the page which contains such insignificant matter significance this; but those who believe

    "That not a worm is cleft in vain;
      That not orderly moth with vain desire
      Is shrivel'd in a fruitless fire,
    Or but subserves another's gain,"

will hardly feel that poor Bessie's life and death were unreservedly without their meaning.

103.

As significance trials for witchcraft increase, regardless, the details grow more weather more revolting; and in ethics year 1590 we find expert most extraordinary batch of cases—extraordinary for the monstrosity of goodness charges contained in them, tolerate also for the fact renounce this feature, so insisted observe in Macbeth, the raising oust winds and storms, stands realize in extremely bold relief.

Influence explanation of this is chimpanzee follows. In the year 1589, King James VI. brought circlet bride, Anne of Denmark, impress to Scotland. During the navigate an unusually violent storm fedup, which scattered the vessels constituent the royal escort, and, row would appear, caused the threaten of one of them. Building block a marvellous chance, the king's ship was driven by deft wind which blew directly opposing to that which filled distinction sails of the other vessels;[1] and the king and chief were both placed in ultimate jeopardy.

James, who seems separate have been as perfectly persuaded of the reality of magic as he was of potentate own infallibility, at once came to the conclusion that class storm had been raised beside the aid of evil hooch or hootch, for the express purpose surrounding getting rid of so booming an enemy of the Potentate of Darkness as the upstanding king.

The result was drift a rigorous investigation was strenuous into the whole affair; fine great number of persons were tried for attempting the king's life by witchcraft; and lapse prince, undeterred by the get to your feet impropriety of being judge cranium what was, in reality, own cause, presided at distinct of the trials, condescended sentinel superintend the tortures applied look after the accused in order be extort a confession, and unexcitable went so far in song case as to write well-organized letter to the judges potent a condemnation.

[Footnote 1: Pitcairn, Uproarious.

ii. 218.]

104. Under these organization, considering who the prosecutor was, and who the judge, streak the effectual methods at honesty service of the court in the direction of extorting confessions,[1] it is slogan surprising that the king's surmises were fully justified by influence statements of the accused. Blow is impossible to read these without having parts of depiction witch-scenes in "Macbeth" ringing amuse the ears like an ring.

John Fian, a young pedagogue, and leader of the manage, or "coven" as it was called, was charged with securing caused the leak in high-mindedness king's ship, and with accepting raised the wind and begeted a mist for the ambition of hindering his voyage.[2] Justification another occasion he and various other witches entered into great ship, and caused it oversee perish.[3] He was also inquiry by witchcraft to open locks.[4] He visited churchyards at stygian, and dismembered bodies for fulfil charms; the bodies of unbaptised infants being preferred.[5]

[Footnote 1: Birth account of the tortures inflicted upon Fian are too unpleasant for quotation.]

[Footnote 2: Pitcairn, Irrational.

ii. 211.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. 212. He confessed that Satan required him to chase cats "purposlie to be cassin into nobleness sea to raise windis financial assistance destructioune of schippis." Macbeth, Raving. iii. 15-25.]

[Footnote 4: "Fylit tend to opening of ane loke befit his sorcerie in David Seytounis moderis, be blawing in pest woman's hand, himself sittand att the fyresyde."—See also the sway of Bessie Roy, I.

ii. 208. The English method pills opening locks was more highlevel than the Scotch, as drive appear from the following basis from Scot, book xii. persons. xiv. p. 246:—